How Does the Usage of Illegal Drugs Affect the Body?

How Does the Usage of Illegal Drugs Affect the Body?

Illegal drug use has become an issue of concern to the public. The issue of illegal drug use has become even more rampant in recent years. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2018) reported that as of 2016, an estimated 275 million people globally, or 5.6% of the global population aged between 15 and 64 years of age, had used drugs at least once. The number has continued to rise over the years. In 2021, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2023) noted that over 296 million people had used drugs, indicating a significant increase over a period of 5 years. Concerns are even growing as drug use has increased among college students. The increase is linked to the availability of a wide range of drugs and diversified drug markets and suppliers, including the use of social media and emerging e-commerce platforms for drug trafficking.

The United States has among the highest drug use issues. The major drugs abused drugs are opiates, cocaine, cannabis, ecstasy, amphetamines, and the non-medical use of pharmaceutical opioids. The level of drug use in the U.S. is concerning. A 2020 National Survey of Drug Use and Health notes that over 13.5 percent of Americans aged above years had used drugs within the last month, while 59.277 million or 21.4% of the U.S. population aged 12 and above years had also used illegal drugs or abused prescription drugs within a year (National Centre for Drug Abuse Statistics, 2023). Of concern is that over 138.543 million Americans aged 12 and over are noted to have used illicit drugs in their lifetime.

Different drugs have different effects on the body. The effects of illegal drug use on the body are manifested both physically and mentally. Such effects on the body can occur in the short term and in the long term. A majority of these effects occur due to the complex physiological changes induced by the drugs that cause alterations in the way various body organs function, such as the brain, and how certain conditions develop due to these alterations, such as addictions and drug use disorders. The alterations that occur also increase the risk of diseases and organ damage, such as various cancers, liver and kidney damage, and infertility, among others. They also contribute to and exacerbate psychological conditions such as depression and other cognitive conditions. Illegal drug use and the method of delivery also creates a risk for the drug users, with injecting drug users (IDUs) noted to have an increased risk of developing diseases such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and other conditions (Saputri et al., 2023). Additionally, illegal drug use is a risk for death, with 700 thousand reported deaths due to drug overdose, with many more deaths associated with illegal use of drugs (National Centre for Drug Abuse Statistics, 2023).

Illegal drug addictions leading to excessive use potentially impact overall health, mental well-being, and, in many cases, the overall well-being of others (Ritchie et al., 2022). As the number of people using illegal drugs in the U.S. and around the world keeps on growing, increasing the risk of poor individual and societal health, there is a need for research to explore how illegal drug use affects the body of the user. This article presents a research proposal that aims to explore how the use of illegal drugs affects the body both physically and mentally. It will also focus on the underlying mechanisms through which illegal drugs disrupt normal bodily functions, majorly brain, cardiovascular, respiratory, and immune system functions, and how such disruptions contribute to the development of health complications.

Literature Review

There is an enormous amount of research literature available today focused on the effects of illegal drugs on the human body. Current evidence shows that the use of illicit drugs is a growing threat to global health in general as users of illicit drugs become susceptible to multiple physical, mental, and social health risks (Ryan et al., 2019). The effects of illegal drugs on the body of the users differ based on the type of drug used and duration of use. The main effects are psychological, cognitive, and physical. Major research has focused on how illegal drugs interact and affect the central nervous system, how illegal drugs interact and affect various physiological processes, the effects of illegal drugs on mental health and related disorders, and the long-term effects of illegal drug use on physical and mental health.

Illegal Drugs Interaction and Effect on the Central Nervous System

Illegal drugs such as psychostimulants and alcohol have the potential to dysregulate the central nervous system with the potential to damage brain cells and influence neural activity. For instance, an article by Pimentel et al. (2020) exploring the effects of drugs of abuse on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) argues that the use of psychostimulants and alcohol disrupts the integrity of BBB, altering the cellular function of the BBB and the brain. The article further argues that such alterations in cellular functionality is a contributing factor to neurotoxicity. As per Pimentel et al. (2020), the functioning of the BBB is regulated by tight junction (TJ) proteins consisting of claudins, occludins, junction adhesion molecules (JAM), and zonula occludentes (ZO-1, 2, and 3) that endothelial cells (EC). Continued use of psychostimulants such as cocaine, methamphetamine, morphine, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol and alcohol induce TJ protein and cytoskeletal changes, which increase BBB permeability and promote glial activation, enzyme potentiation, and BBB remodeling, with an effect on neuroinflammatory pathways. In another study, Miller et al. (2021) note that potent psychostimulants such as methamphetamine (METH) dysregulate CNS functioning by increasing extracellular monoamines, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, causing heightened dopaminergic neuronal activity.

Illegal Drugs Interaction and Effect on Physiological Processes

The use of illegal drugs, including psychostimulants like cocaine and alcohol, interacts with and significantly affects various organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system, as well as the immune system. An article by Miller et al. (2021) notes that besides METH regulating dopaminergic neuronal activity, its continued use has been noted to affect multiple tissue and cell types in the CNS and peripheral immune cells, causing dysregulation of such cells resulting in reduced peripheral immunity. Additionally, cocaine is also noted to be a leading cause of drug-abuse-related visits to emergency departments due to cardiomyopathy and heart failure (Arenas et al., 2020). Based on evidence from a systematic review and metanalysis of existing evidence, Arenas et al. (2020) note that chronic cocaine use impairs left ventricular systolic function regardless of the presence of coronary disease, thickened heart walls, and higher heart weight and increasing risk of heart failure.

Some psychoactive drugs, such as cannabis, have varied effects on the body of the user. For instance, cannabis is noted to be a psychoactive drug that induces hypodopaminergic anhedonia with a potential for neuropsychological dysfunction (Blum et al., 2021). However, research evidence also links cannabis extracts such as cannabidiol (CBD) based on animal studies have been found to regulate T-cell function by suppressing cytokine production as CBD expressed CB2 receptor (CB2R) selective agonist characteristics (Nichols & Kaplan, 2020). In this case, CDB reduces inflammatory response during infections by dampening down immune responses.

Effects of Illegal Drugs on Mental Health and Related Disorders

The use of illegal drugs has a negative impact on mental. Continued drug use significantly leads to the development of mental issues and exacerbates existing ones. For instance, alcohol use, tobacco smoking, use of illegal drugs, and misuse of prescription medications are causal factors for the development of substance use disorder (Atzendorf et al., 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic saw an increase in the use of illicit drugs and the development of various mental health issues due to the measures employed to curb the spread of the pandemic (Taylor et al., 2021). For instance, substance use initiation during the pandemic saw individuals develop anxiety and depressive symptoms (Rogers et al., 2020). Notably, besides leading to the development of mental health issues, drug use is evidently associated with exacerbating existing mental issues and was noted to increase suicidal ideation with prolonged use (Czeisler et al., 2020).

Long-term Effects of Illegal Drug Use on Physical and Mental Health

Continued illegal drug use is associated with the development of long-term physical and mental health problems. A major concern for illegal drug use is the development of addictions and dependency on the drugs. Addiction is a result of the manipulation of the brain’s neural functioning and the overstimulation of the brain’s reward systems (Levis et al., 2022). Continued exposure to the drug or stimulator leads to reward-related deficits, forcing the user to develop long-term dependency on the drugs. Prolonged dependency on drugs such as cocaine is associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular complications and eventual heart failure (Arenas et al., 2020). Other drugs, such as alcohol, are a risk of liver and kidney failure and may lead to death due to overdose and multiorgan failure. More notable in the continuum of drug use is the development of neurocognitive deficits, including memory loss and lack of coordination during movement. Notably, long-term and chronic users of illegal drugs such as cannabis develop major withdrawal symptoms, including shaking, tremors, mood swings, and a risk for relapse into drug use (Connor et al., 2022). Conclusively, reviewed literature shows that illegal drug use has significant impacts on the body of the users, including the dysregulation of the CNS, the experience of pleasure, the development of mental issues, and disruption of physiological processes in both the short- and long-term.

Methodology

The proposed study aims to explore the effects of illegal drug use on the body. As explanatory research, the proposed research will employ a mixed-methods retrospective cohort study approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methods for data collection in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem of focus. The quantitative aspect of the study will be used in the identification and selection of the sample population or cohorts for the study based on exposure. Cohorts will be divided based on the duration of illegal drug use and the type of commonly used illegal drugs. All participants will be comprehensively examined for existing medical conditions, such as cardiovascular, neurological, mental, and psychological conditions, as analysis of urine and blood samples to ensure the presence of drug metabolites. Quantitative data will be collected from existing national health records and databases on illegal drug use and outcomes.

The qualitative component of the research will be used to collect qualitative data using self-reported surveys and interviews to help understand their experiences, reasons for drug use, and the nature of mental health problems related to their illegal drug use. Collected quantitative data will be statistically analyzed, while qualitative data will be analyzed using content analysis.

Ethical Considerations

Conducting illegal drug use-related studies can be ethically complicated and face multiple ethical challenges due to the various ethical issues that arise from dealing with people who use illegal drugs. Some major challenges of studying illegal drug users include the participants’ capacity to provide informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, protecting the participant’s legal prosecution related to the use, and the relatedness of the political, social, and economic factors of drug use (Ryan et al., 2019). The proposed study will consider various strategies to navigate the challenging ethical environment of studying illegal drug users. For instance, as informed consent requires the participants to comprehend the nature of the study and voluntarily agree to participate in the study, the proposed study will employ a measure of the extent of intoxication as an inclusion and exclusion criterion. This will ensure the selected participants can understand and voluntarily provide informed consent. To overcome the confidentiality and legal protection challenge, the researcher will obtain a Certificate of Confidentiality (COC) as authorized by the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) section 301 (d) to ensure the privacy of all participants is protected regardless of the legal issues that may arise during the study. Additionally, there is concern that the social, political, and economic factors affecting the participants may lead to further ethical challenges during the study. Therefore, all members of the research team will be educated on facts related to illegal drug use across various social, economic, and political settings.

Significance of the Study

The proposed study is significant for a number of reasons. First, the use of illegal drugs is growing nationally and globally. This continually creates a substantial threat to national and global public health. Therefore, the findings of the study will help explain how illegal drugs affect the body when used and how these effects of illegal drugs make users susceptible to physical, mental, and social health risks. It will, therefore, contribute to the current body of evidence on the physical and mental effects of illegal drug use. Secondly, as the proposed study explores the effects of illegal drug use on the body and related physical and mental health complications, it will help in the development and implementation of evidence-based and targeted interventions, both curative and preventative, to help reduce illegal drug use, create awareness, and treat current drug use disorders and complications. Overall, the proposed study will significantly contribute evidence that can potentially help improve the physical and mental wellness of both illegal drug users and society with a reduction of the burden of drug use on the healthcare and social systems.

 References

Arenas, D. J., Beltran, S., Zhou, S., & Goldberg, L. R. (2020). Cocaine, cardiomyopathy, and heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports 2020 10:1, 10(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76273-1

Atzendorf, J., Rauschert, C., Seitz, N.-N., Lochbühler, K., & Kraus, L. (2019). The Use of Alcohol, Tobacco, Illegal Drugs and Medicines: An Estimate of Consumption and Substance-Related Disorders in Germany. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 116(35–36), 577. https://doi.org/10.3238/ARZTEBL.2019.0577

Blum, K., Morgan, J., Cadet, J. L., Baron, D., Carney, P. R., Khalsa, J., Badgaiyan, R. D., & Gold, M. S. (2021). Psychoactive Drugs Like Cannabis -Induce Hypodopaminergic Anhedonia and Neuropsychological Dysfunction in Humans: Putative Induction of Dopamine Homeostasis via Coupling of Genetic Addiction Risk Severity (GARS) Testing and Precision Pro-dopamine Regulation (KB220). Neurology (E-Cronicon), 13(4), 86. /PMC/articles/PMC8171216/

Connor, J. P., Stjepanović, D., Budney, A. J., Le Foll, B., & Hall, W. D. (2022). Clinical management of cannabis withdrawal. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 117(7), 2075. https://doi.org/10.1111/ADD.15743

Czeisler, M. É., Lane, R. I., Petrosky, E., Wiley, J. F., Christensen, A., Njai, R., Weaver, M. D., Robbins, R., Facer-Childs, E. R., Barger, L. K., Czeisler, C. A., Howard, M. E., & Rajaratnam, S. M. W. (2020). Mental Health, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation During the COVID-19 Pandemic — United States, June 24–30, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(32), 1049. https://doi.org/10.15585/MMWR.MM6932A1

Levis, S. C., Baram, T. Z., & Mahler, S. V. (2022). Neurodevelopmental origins of substance use disorders: Evidence from animal models of early-life adversity and addiction. European Journal of Neuroscience, 55(9–10), 2170–2195. https://doi.org/10.1111/EJN.15223

Miller, D. R., Bu, M., Gopinath, A., Martinez, L. R., & Khoshbouei, H. (2021). Methamphetamine Dysregulation of the Central Nervous System and Peripheral Immunity. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 379(3), 372–385. https://doi.org/10.1124/JPET.121.000767

National Centre for Drug Abuse Statistics. (2023). Substance Abuse and Addiction Statistics. NCDAS. https://drugabusestatistics.org/

Nichols, J. M., & Kaplan, B. L. F. (2020). Immune Responses Regulated by Cannabidiol. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 5(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1089/CAN.2018.0073

Pimentel, E., Sivalingam, K., Doke, M., & Samikkannu, T. (2020). Effects of Drugs of Abuse on the Blood-Brain Barrier: A Brief Overview. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 525336. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNINS.2020.00513/BIBTEX

Ritchie, H., Arriagada, P., & Roser, M. (2022). Opioids, cocaine, cannabis and other illicit drugs. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use

Rogers, A. H., Shepherd, J. M., Garey, L., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2020). Psychological factors associated with substance use initiation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113407. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSYCHRES.2020.113407

Ryan, J. E., Smeltzer, S. C., & Sharts-Hopko, N. C. (2019). Challenges to Studying Illicit Drug Users. Journal of Nursing Scholarship : An Official Publication of Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 51(4), 480. https://doi.org/10.1111/JNU.12486

Saputri, L. D., Widiyaningsih, V., & Prasetya, H. (2023). Effect of Injecting Drug User on the Risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health, 8(1), 77–87.

Taylor, S., Paluszek, M. M., Rachor, G. S., McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2021). Substance use and abuse, COVID-19-related distress, and disregard for social distancing: A network analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 114, 106754. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADDBEH.2020.106754

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United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC]. (2023). World Drug Report 2023.

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1. Your research proposal is research you are “planning” to conduct, which means your proposal is your anticipated plan for how you will conduct your study. Therefore, first, you start with a title/topic about
something that you are interested in, which you have all submitted and have been approved for. Think about something that may not have been researched or
something that has been researched that you plan to change. It CAN NOT be something that has already been done that you simply copy.
2. You have all submitted a hypothesis and have also received a grade. So that you won’t be confused. This is why I suggested that your title and hypothesis assignments be related to the topic. Remember, a hypothesis is an educated guess about the outcome of your research.
3. You have your title and hypothesis. Now, you need a research problem (what are you planning to investigate or gather data about)? This is the start of your proposal. Review Chapters 1 and 2, which discuss what research is. Chapters 3 and 4 continue and go into conducting a literature review. Chapters 5 and 13 discuss writing your research proposal. Please review these PowerPoint presentations and use them as a reference to guide you as you develop your proposal.

Please find the criteria below for your research proposals:
• Title page
• Double-spaced
• Does not exceed 10 pages of narrative, but a minimum of 8 (not including cover page and reference page)
• 12-point font
• Left-justified
• Contains appropriate citations and annotations
• Follow APA style (7th edition) guidelines
Your research proposals should be at minimum six (8) pages, no more than 10 pages, EXCLUDING your title and reference pages, and should include the headings below:
1. Title Page
2. Introduction
3. Literature Review
4. Methodology
5. Ethical Considerations
6. Significance of the Study
7. References