Why Evolution is True

Why Evolution is True

Introduction

Evolution creates a foundation for the existence of living things on earth. Coyne (2009) views it as a fascinating wonder that needs to be reviewed to eliminate myths about the true origin of living things in the universe. The author’s arguments are based on Darwin’s theory of evolution. Darwin posited that all living things originated from evolution and that revolution was supported by natural selection to limit the overcrowding of living things on Earth. The concept of natural selection can explain the differences in living things because each human being adapts to the environment differently for survival. For instance, humans from different lineages have different DNA, thus creating a biological distinction among them. Coyne (2009) argues that the concept of evolution is broad and extends beyond the scientific sphere, hence the need to review various concepts that provide evidence for Darwin’s theory of evolution. The author explores these concepts by distinguishing between facts and myths about evolution and explaining how an individual may test the validity of an evolution theory.

Chapter 1: What Is Evolution

Coyne (2009) argues that every living thing has adapted different mechanisms to survive in its environment. These mechanisms create the basis for evolution. Therefore, evolution can be defined as the development of life on earth from a single primitive species, which could be a self-relocating molecule that lived many years ago. The author suggests that the single species that bore life more than 3.5 billion years ago duplicated over time, resulting in many diverse species. According to Coyne (2009), the concept of evolution incorporates gradualism, evolution, common ancestry, specification, natural selection, and nonselective techniques of evolutionary change. This implies that evolution cannot be complete without these elements. Natural selection dictates the species’ population by ensuring that only those that adapt to the environment survive. Species can gradually develop features such as jaws and teeth to distinguish themselves from others. Such features may include camouflage, hunting techniques to get food, and defensive mechanisms to attack enemies. Evolution also extends to genetic changes that species undergo over time which makes a species evolve to something different based on genetic mutations. This is evident in human beings’ evolution because the human species evolved from an ape-like creature that gradually changed over the years to the current species. Speciation contributes to diversity in creatures within the same species because it limits interbreeding between different groups. Coyne (2009) suggests that evolution can be predicted by applying the idea of common ancestry, which includes assuming that species with similar DNA have a close relationship. Therefore, it can be concluded that evolution is the transitioning of a species from one form to another until the species can adapt to its environment and increase its survival chances. Do you need urgent assignment help ? Our homework help will save you tons of energy and time required for your homework paper.

Chapter 2: Written in The Rocks

Fossils prove that evolution is real and began a long time ago. Coyne (2009) argues that fossils help scientists study living species and try to understand revolutionary relationships by identifying similarities in DNA sequence, development, and form. However, understanding evolution through fossils requires gathering a lot of fossils, putting them in the right order from the oldest to the youngest, and determining the exact time of formation. Fossils can tell the origin of a species because they are made up of plant or animal remains deposited at the bottom of water bodies and covered by sediment to avoid decaying or getting scattered. The remains may also, on rare occasions, be found at the bottom of an ocean or lake. Coyne (2009) argues that the fossil record is incomplete because only 250,000 of the seventeen million species that ever lived on the earth have been discovered. This implies that there are some species whose evolution has not been found. Relying on fossils to understand evolution is, however, a matter that is still being debated because of the doubts about the reliability of the dates used to estimate the age of fossils. The main assumption of those opposing the use of fossils in understanding evolution is that radioactive decay might have altered over time or with the pressure applied to rocks. According to Coyne (2009), fossils depict evolutionary changes within lineages that have occurred over the years because young fossils should have features similar to the living modern species. However, using fossils to interpret evolution may not be accurate because they do not clarify the selective pressures that resulted in the evolutionary changes in a specific species because the fossils’ environment changes over time.

Chapter 3: Remnants: Vestiges, Embryos, and Bad Design

Evolutionary history can be derived from a plant’s or animal’s body. Coyne (2009) argues that features such as vestigial organs can be used to determine an animal’s ancestry. However, there are concerns that vestigial organs are not reliable evidence for evolution because the features developed by a species over time are either necessary for the species to adapt to its environment or their use has not yet been discovered. Therefore, a feature cannot be considered vestigial if it still serves a purpose in a creature’s existence. The counterargument is that evolution does not posit that vestigial features have no function but classifies them as vestigial because they no longer perform the functions for which they evolved. The main assumption of those supporting the consideration of vestigial organs in interpreting evolution is that ancestral features are anticipated to evolve new uses, as is the case when evolution leads to the development of new traits.

Atavisms arise when a species emerges with an anomaly similar to the reappearance of an ancestral trait (Coyne, 2009). According to Coyne (2009), atavisms are caused by the re-expression of genes that were functional in the species’ ancestors but rendered less useful by natural selection when they were no longer needed. However, atavisms may also arise from laboratory modifications. Atavisms and vestigial organs complement the understanding of evolution through bad design by creating the concept of dead genes. Coyne (2009) argues that when the traits that are no longer needed are reduced, the genes making them do not disappear, but evolution stops the genes by inactivating them and removing them from a species’ DNA. Therefore, every species has genes that are no longer functional, but the genes could be active in the species’ relatives and a common ancestor. Dead genes continue to sustain the natural selection process because dead genes from other species create viruses from ancient infections. Individuals with genes that can withstand the virus survive, while those who cannot die. Therefore, the evolution process does not end as long as the mutation of genes and the development of viruses continues.

Chapter 4: The Geography of Life

Evolution dictates the distribution of species across the earth, thus dictating their habitat. The first interpretation of the distribution of species across the earth is derived from the biblical story about Noah’s Ark.The primary assumption made by those who consider this story to explain the habitat of various species is that creatures from the same species left the ark in pairs and settled on one location. The second interpretation is that every species remained at or near where they were created. The third interpretation is Darwin’s theory of evolution. Darwin’s argument that species evolved from a single ancestor and selected a habitat based on their ability to adapt to it acknowledges that the earth had changed over the years, but there was no way of determining the magnitude of the change. According to Coyne (2009), Darwin’s evolution theory predicts and considers data to support the idea that as species multiply from their common ancestor, there are changes that occur in their DNA sequence in a slightly straight-line way with time. Coyne (2009) argues that evolution offers a credible explanation for why different species have similar forms in different locations by invoking the convergent evolution process. The process suggests that species living in the same habitat experience the same selection pressures from their surroundings, so they may converge or develop similar adaptations that make them look or behave the same way despite being unrelated. The convergent evolution process demonstrates collaboration between natural selection, speciation, and common ancestry. Coyne (2009) suggests that the geographical distribution of species also results from the colonization of new areas when species disperse. Therefore, if evolution occurs, species living in one region should be the descendants of older species that inhabited the area.

Chapter 5: The Engine of Evolution

Adaptation creates a foundation for evolution as a species changes or develops features to survive in its environment. Species may adapt features to defend themselves and find a mate or food. According to Coyne (2009), adaptation dictates the natural selection process by limiting the survival of weak species. The author argues that selection is a process describing how genes that produce favorable adaptations become more frequent with time. Species must adapt to their environment if they have the suitable genetic variation, thus suggesting that species do not try to adapt to their environment but are forced to adapt due to environmental conditions. Coyne (2009) argues that for natural selection to occur, the primary population has to be variable for a specific trait to evolve, some part of the variation must come from genetic changes, and the genetic variation must affect a species’ probability of leaving an offspring. The changes arise from mutations, which are the accidental changes in a genetic sequence that often occur as errors when a molecule is copied during the division of cells. According to Coyne (2009), evolution by selection is, therefore, a combination of lawfulness and randomness. Lawfulness arises from the natural selection process ordering species variation and maintaining the good and eliminating the bad, while randomness arises from the occurrence of mutations generating various genetic variants, both positive and negative. Coyne (2009) posits that the theory of natural selection can explain how every adaptation changed from a species’ ancestor to a modern species, including the changes in molecular features. However, it is essential to consider the fact that natural selection could act against a species. Evolution may also occur without selection due to a genetic drift, which includes a change in the frequency of genetic alleles. Therefore, reviewing evolution on the grounds of adaptation should consider the possibility of adaptations that are not a result of selection.

Chapter 6: How Sex Drives Evolution

Sex is the main form of reproduction contributing to the existence of species on the earth. According to Coyne (2009), sexual selection contributes to the evolution of species by increasing the species’ chance of getting a mate and creating offspring. It is a part of natural selection that results in nonadoptive adaptations. It may occur through direct competition of male species for access to females or the choosiness of female species among potential mates. Coyne (2009) argues that there is a difference between the evolution of males and females due to differential investments, including investing in expensive eggs, parental care, and pregnancy. The selection gives males with unique genes an advantage, thus creating dominance of a species with specific features. According to Coyne (2009), the difference between females and males in their possible number of offspring dictates the evolution of female choice and male-male competition. The author states that female preferences are adaptive because the preference for certain types of males helps females pass their genes to many offspring. Evolution and the rise of new generations enable every female to carry preference genes. Sexual evolution may also include sexual dimorphisms that arise from pre-existing biases in the nervous system of a female species. The biases could result from natural selection for some functions other than finding food or a mate. The author suggests that the sensory-bias model could be vital in understanding evolution because natural selection may often create pre-existing preferences to help species survive and reproduce, and the preferences can be selected through sexual selection to generate new male traits.

Chapter 7: The Origin of Species

Darwin’s evolution theory creates the starting point for defining the origin of species. Coyne (2009) gives a different perspective by arguing that species do not emerge to fill empty slots in nature but are an unavoidable result of genetic barriers arising from the evolution of spatially isolated populations in different directions. One of the theories explaining species’ origin is the geographic speciation theory, which posits that the evolution of genetic isolation between populations is dictated by geographic isolation. Based on the population genetics theory, separating one population into two genetically unique parts is very hard if they retain the chance to interbreed. Coyne (2009) argues that without isolation, selection that could separate populations has to object to interbreeding that constantly unites individuals and combines their genes. One of the predictions that can be derived from the geographic speciation theory is that if speciation mainly depends on geographical isolation, there must be many opportunities during the population’s historical life to experience isolation. Species may also be scattered in different regions due to accidental long-distance separation. The second prediction considers geography. It suggests that if populations must be physically isolated from each other to become species, then the most recently found species should be found in different but nearby areas. The third prediction suggests that geographic speciation continues to happen, thus creating isolated populations of a single species starting to speciate and showing small amounts of reproductive isolations from other populations. The fourth prediction is that reproductive isolation between a pair of physically isolated populations increases gradually with time. Therefore, geographic speciation creates the foundation for determining the origin of species.

Chapter 8: What About Us?

According to Coyne (2009), some people are against the use of Darwin’s theory of evolution in explaining the origin of human beings because they argue that human beings did not evolve from an ancestor that was different from the current human being. However, this argument is not enough to disregard Darwin’s theory because fossils confirm that our ancestors had ape-like features, thus confirming that human beings have evolved over the years by developing features to adapt to their environment. Coyne (2009) argues that fossils of human species that existed five to seven million years ago may have traits shared by orangutans, chimpanzees, and gorillas. The existence of different races indicates that human beings were geographically separated to create genetic divergence. The evolution of races also resulted from sexual selection, which enabled the exchange of genes across races, creating a new race. According to Coyne (2009), selection has created differences between populations within ethnic groups, such as differences in the tolerance of lactose among people from different ethnic groups. Coyne (2009) argues that human beings may be de-evolving but are also becoming more adapted to modern environments that form new types of selection. Therefore, our genetic changes may be slow, but we are still developing different features to survive in our environment; thus, the applicability of Darwin’s theory of natural selection is understanding modern-day human evolution.

Chapter 9: Evolution Redux

Coyne (2009) argues that evolution is a scientific fact, although it is hard to predict how a particular species will evolve. However, we can predict where to locate a fossil, the likely time an ancestor will appear, and what the ancestors should look like before they are found. The author states that the major arguments of Darwinism have been verified by confirming that organisms evolved gradually, natural selection is the main driver of evolution, and lineages are divided into different species from a similar ancestor. However, considering evolutionary biology, other aspects of Darwin’s theory must be reviewed. The supernatural explanation of the origin of human beings should also be considered, including the creation concept. Coyne (2009) suggests that further review on human evolution should also consider the changes in human behavior to determine whether the changes arise from natural selection or other evolutionary aspects.

Conclusion

Evolution is a broad concept that many scientists have reviewed. However, Darwin’s theory is the most dominant because it considers various tents such as gradualism, evolution, common ancestry, specification, natural selection, and nonselective techniques of evolutionary change. The discussion in this paper demonstrates that evolution is a fact and that Darwin’s theory of natural selection creates the foundation for other evolutionary theories. The author successfully persuades readers that Darwinism can be applied in understanding the evolution of all living things, including human beings, despite the critics suggesting that Darwin’s theory does not apply to human evolution.

References

Coyne, J. A. (2009). Why evolution is true. OUP Oxford.

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For this course, you are required to submit a 10-page critique and personal reflection on the textbook Why Evolution Is True. This draft is worth 3% of your grade. The final draft of this assignment is worth 23% of your grade, and APA style is required.

Why Evolution is True

Your paper should allow you to reflect upon each of the themes in the chapters of the book. For example, you should focus on reflections of your growing understanding of what evolution is and what it is not. It should include your personal journey of discovery related to the concept of evolution. It should also include philosophical, theological, and sociological reflections, as well as a demonstration of a scientific understanding of evolution. Additionally, you should critique and evaluate the ideas presented in the book using your scientific understanding of the process of evolution.

The term paper is a major assignment for this course and so ought to evidence the following:

Understanding of the relevant science
The ability to use relevant literature in support of your conclusions
Your individual response to the material and readings. This may involve an assessment of what you found to be particularly compelling and/or problematic; your personal thoughts and/or reactions to what is being considered; consideration of implications implicit in the materials being addressed; an assessment of the strengths and/or shortcomings of particular points; etc.