Understanding Cultural and Generational Conflicts in Counseling- Insights from Case Studies

Understanding Cultural and Generational Conflicts in Counseling- Insights from Case Studies

The ninth chapter of Adam J. Prus’s Book Drug and Neuroscience of Behavior discusses alcohol as a depressant with a potential for abuse. Alcohol is one of the most commonly used depressants in the world today. Its use dates back to ancient times, although its use in the US was banned in the early 1920s. Various forms of alcohol exist, but only ethyl alcohol is safe for human use. Other forms, such as methanol, produce considerable toxicities when consumed. 

Alcohol has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic components and is thus soluble in both fat and water media. This makes its absorption considerably fast upon consumption. It is absorbed along the upper GI tract (Prus, 2021). Food slows its absorption. Upon absorption, alcohol is rapidly distributed to the tissues and the brain. Its metabolism occurs in the liver by alcohol dehydrogenases. Alcohol is a microsomal enzyme inducer and can, therefore, enhance the metabolism of other drugs metabolized by these enzymes (Teschke, 2018). Metabolism and excretion of alcohol follow zero-order kinetics. The amount of alcohol available in the body is quantifiable by its concentration in the bloodstream. Blood alcohol concentration defines the amount of alcohol in grams contained in 100ml of blood.

Alcohol produces its effects upon interacting with receptors in the CNS. Alcohol enhances GABA’s inhibitory effects and inhibits the NMDA excitatory effects. It also enhances the inhibitory effects of serotonin and calcium channels. It also affects the endocannabinoid system. Alcohol produces excitatory effects characterized by euphoria at lower doses. At higher doses, it causes marked depression characterized by behavioral disinhibition. These actions form the basis for its abuse. Acute alcohol use causes the symptoms of headache, dehydration, and nausea, as well as overall poor well-being. The reinforcing and relaxing effects of alcohol have been implicated in its addiction upon chronic use. Other adverse effects apparent after long-term use include cardiovascular-related problems, cirrhotic liver, and CNS deterioration. Tolerance to alcohol often develops over time, as evident in alcoholics requiring more alcohol to realize equivalent effects. Withdrawal symptoms usually ensue when alcohol addicts stop taking alcohol. These symptoms vary from headache and seizures to coma and even death. Pharmacological and psychological-based therapies are utilizable in treating alcohol addiction.

The tenth chapter discusses opioids. Opioids are psychoactive substances that elicit their pharmacological effects by binding to the opioid receptors in the body. Opioids can either be natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic. Natural opioids are produced from poppy plants and have remained a key commercial plant for some countries. Opioids derived from plants include morphine and codeine. Semi-synthetic opioids are derivatives of morphine, examples of which are oxycodone and hydrocodone, while synthetic opioids are lab-produced and include fentanyl and methadone.

Opioids have found both medical and recreational utility. The medical utility is due to their analgesic effect, while their recreational utility is due to their reinforcing effects. Opioids can be taken via several routes. Oral, intravenous, and inhalational opioids are the most common. Intravenous and inhalational routes produce a quicker onset of action and are the most preferred for those taking opioids for recreational use. Opioids exhibit a good distribution profile with the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Their metabolism occurs in the liver, majorly through the microsomal enzymes that often produce active metabolites (Pergolizzi et al., 2017). Their excretion profile also varies, with some, such as methadone, having very long elimination rates.

Opioids produce their pharmacologic effects by modulating opioid receptors. In this regard, these drugs can be classified as either full, partial agonists, or mixed agonists. Interaction with these receptors often leads to GABA inhibition in the ventral tegmental area, reinforcing effects in the nucleus accumbens and analgesic effects by inhibiting glutamate and substance P release. 

Repeated use of these substances leads to tolerance, which often necessitates larger doses to elicit equivalent effects. The reinforcing effects of opioids that result from GABA inhibitory effects and increased dopaminergic neurotransmission have been implicated in opioid addiction. Withdrawal symptoms usually ensue upon the stoppage of these drugs among addicts. Various interventions have, however, been used to treat opioid addiction. Treatment strategies that replace the illicit opioid drug in use with other safer alternatives and also treat underlying medical conditions have found utility in the long-term plan of care to these individuals.

 References

Pergolizzi, J., LeQuang, J., Berger, G., & Raffa, R. (2017). The Basic Pharmacology of Opioids Informs the Opioid Discourse about Misuse and Abuse: A Review. Pain And Therapy, 6(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40122-017-0068-3

Prus, A. J. (2021). Drugs and the neuroscience of behavior: An introduction to psychopharmacology. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Teschke, R. (2018). Alcoholic Liver Disease: Alcohol Metabolism, Cascade of Molecular Mechanisms, Cellular Targets, and Clinical Aspects. Biomedicines, 6(4), 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/

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Name of Book: Drugs and the Neuroscience of Behavior by Prus
Read Chapters 9 and 10 of your Textbook
Summarize each Chapter for this assignment
A good suggestion with a summary is to write down, from memory, what the reading was about without returning initially to the original reading material. This way you are using your thoughts and your own words.

Within the summary for these chapters, you want to use your own words, condense the information, and provide accurate representations of the main points. A summary should only highlight the main points of the reading.
The summary should be more than just an outline of the reading with direct quotes, sentences, words, etc., from the reading itself.
Include within the summary a reflection on the material you read. What were your thoughts, what did you learn, what would you like to learn more about?
APA format should be used. The textbook should be included as a reference.