Research Question, Hypothesis, and Annotated Bibliography

Research Question

Can different types of music lead to different physiological responses? In this case, physiological responses include changes in heart rate, skin conductance, and blood pressure.

Hypothesis

Different genres of music, like classical, rock, and jazz, evoke different physiological responses. Classical music will lower heart rate and blood pressure; rock music will increase arousal indicators, such as skin conductance; and jazz will have moderate effects between these extremes.

The research question in this research is based on theories in psychology and physiology, which postulate that external stimuli, such as music, have an influence on the autonomic nervous system. Different genres of music may have different tempos and intensities that could potentially bring about different physiological responses due to the effects on emotional arousal, stress levels, and relaxation. Classical music tends to have a slower tempo and smoother rhythms and is therefore associated with relaxation; thus, it is predicted to decrease physiological arousal (Ballmann, 2021). On the other hand, rock music, which has a faster tempo and greater dynamics, ought to be more exciting and stimulating, thereby increasing arousal levels. Due to the often-present mix of calming and stimulating elements, jazz is hypothesized to result in moderate physiological responses.

Annotated Bibliography

Kulinski, J., Ofori, E. K., Visotcky, A., Smith, A., Sparapani, R., & Fleg, J. L. (2021). Effects of music on the cardiovascular system. Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine, 32(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2021.06.004

Abstract

This article investigates the differential effects of the genres of music on cardiovascular health outcomes: heart rate and blood pressure. In a controlled environment, subjects were exposed to classical music, rock, and jazz, and measurements of cardiovascular reactions were obtained prior to, during, and following exposure. With its fast tempo and strong sound, rock music caused increased heart rates, manifesting heightened physiological arousal. Jazz music was associated with mixed results, with effects falling between classical and rock.

Annotation

The study by Kulinski et al. (2021) presents findings that show that different styles of music have specific effects on cardiovascular markers. Specifically, classical music reduces heart rate and blood pressure, supporting its therapeutic potential, particularly in managing stress and anxiety. Rock music increases heart rate, aligning with findings linking faster tempos to heightened arousal. The moderate effects observed for jazz music indicate a unique placement between rock, less intense, and classical, less calming. This study corroborates the existing belief that music genres have measurable physiological effects, contributing to the general knowledge of music therapy.

These results complement Tervaniemi et al. (2021), who also reported that slower-tempo music in relaxing environments significantly reduces heart rate. However, the focus of Kulinski et al. is strictly on cardiovascular effects, rendering more specific insight into changes in heart rate and blood pressure. This contrasts with studies such as Rasing et al. (2022), where these authors looked at more general markers of stress other than those related to cardiovascular health, such as cortisol.

The small sample size in Kulinski et al.’s (2021) study means that findings might not be generalizable beyond the study due to uncontrollable individual differences in music preference and baseline cardiovascular health. Another major limitation was the failure to control for other potential confounding factors, such as the subjects’ familiarity with or dislike of certain genres of music, which might influence their physiological responses.

Lin, H.-M., Kuo, S.-H., & Mai, T. P. (2023). Does a slower tempo make a worse performance? The effect of musical tempo on cognitive processing speed. Frontiers in Psychology, 14(14). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.998460

Abstract

This study investigates the effect of musical tempo on the speed of cognitive processing. One hundred college students, randomly assigned, listened to either slow-tempo or fast-tempo music or no music at all while completing a battery of cognitive tasks that measured processing speed. Results indicated that fast-tempo music significantly enhanced performance on the speeded tasks compared with slower-tempo music or silence. These results indicate that fast-tempo music improves processing speed regarding cognition due to the enhancement of arousal and attentional focus, whereas slower-tempo music may deteriorate performance on tasks requiring fast responses.

Annotation

Lin et al. (2023) examined the influence of music tempo on cognitive processing speed. Participants had to complete various timed cognitive tasks under one of three conditions: fast-tempo, slow-tempo music, or no music. Results showed that the fast-tempo condition significantly improved processing speed and, rather importantly, the accuracy of tasks. Music, therefore, seems to increase arousal and attention. In contrast, slower music impaired performance on a task that required fast responding, thus lowering levels of arousal. These findings suggest that fast tempos may be suitable in settings where high cognitive engagement is needed, such as workplace or studying environments.

The findings by Lin et al. are in line with those of Patania et al. (2020), where faster tempos also had benefits on physical tasks, suggesting that fast tempos increase arousal both in the cognitive and physical spheres. On the other hand, Kulinski et al. (2021) showed that slower music decreases cardiovascular arousal and is useful for relaxation rather than concentration.

Still, Lin et al.’s (2023) study is limited by the controlled laboratory setting, which may not be representative of real-world distractions, and by its sample of college students, which limits generalizability. Also, it did not take into account individual music preferences, which might alter the effects of arousal and performance. The study’s findings should be extended to diverse populations in the future, including the dimension of music familiarity.

Patania, V. M., Padulo, J., Iuliano, E., Ardigò, L. P., Čular, D., Miletić, A., & De Giorgio, A. (2020). The psychophysiological effects of different tempo music on endurance versus high-intensity performances. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(74). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00074

Abstract

This study reviews the influences of music tempo on psychophysiological responses and performance during endurance and high-intensity exercise. Sixty athletes were exposed to slow-tempo, fast-tempo, and no music conditions while performing endurance and high-intensity exercises. The study concludes that the high-intensity exercises are executed with fast-tempo tunes as the arousal and physical activities improve with fast-tempo music, but moderate endurance was preferred with slow-tempo music. These findings suggest that music tempo can modulate physiological responses and may be used as a tool for performance enhancement in various types of exercise.

Annotation

Patania et al. (2020) examine the impact of music tempos on the physical performance and psychophysiological responses of athletes during endurance and high-intensity exercises. Consequently, their findings revealed that fast-tempo music enhanced HIIE performance due to elevated arousal and motivation. On the other hand, slow-tempo music facilitated the completion of endurance exercises with a steady background beat that enables medium levels of effort and long endurance. This study confirms the hypothesis that music tempo affects physiological arousal, increasing focus and stamina in a manner differentially depending on the intensity of the activity. Such findings are instrumental in creating music-based interventions to improve athletic performance.

The outcomes are in line with Lin et al. (2023), who determined that fast tempos increase cognitive processing speed and imply that tempo increases arousal in both mental and physical fields. However, unlike Kulinski et al. (2021), who associated slower music with relaxation in cardiovascular responses, Patania et al. (2020) discovered that slower tempos could help improve endurance under moderate exertion.

Limitations include the focus on trained athletes, which may not generalize to non-athletic populations. Additionally, individual music preference was not considered, which may influence motivation and arousal. Future studies could explore these effects across varied fitness levels and personal preferences to better understand music’s role in exercise performance.

Rasing, N. L., Janus, S. I. M., Kreutz, G., Sveinsdottir, V., Gold, C., Nater, U. M., & Zuidema, S. U. (2022). The impact of music on stress biomarkers: Protocol of a substudy of the cluster-randomized controlled trial music interventions for dementia and depression in elderly care (MIDDLE). Brain Sciences, 12(4), 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040485

Abstract

This study determines the effects of music interventions on stress biomarkers, especially cortisol levels, in elderly individuals with dementia and depression. As part of the greater MIDDEL trial, this sub-study examines whether music interventions could lower levels of stress-related physiological markers measured before, during, and after music sessions. In addition, this research presents evidence based on music therapy in relation to elderly care settings, particularly for those with a cognitive and emotional struggle.

Annotation

Rasing et al. (2022) conducted a study on the effects of music interventions on stress biomarkers in elderly patients with dementia and depression. That particular subgroup of a MIDDEL trial focuses on cortisol as a key biomarker to assess the physiological impact of music on stress. Preliminary findings are mixed: cortisol levels fell in some children but stayed unchanged in other ones. Such variability might suggest that individual differences in either cognitive or emotional state determine the effectiveness music may have in relieving stress for patients with dementia and depression.

This gives an insight into most of the works under tempo or genre, as seen in Kulinski et al. (2021), regarding the impact of music on a susceptible group. In contrast to the previous studies focusing on arousal, Patania et al. (2020) and Rasing et al. (2022) show the therapeutic role of music in reducing stress levels for better mental health.

The study focused on elderly persons with certain conditions, which may not apply to a wider population. Also, individual differences in music preference and familiarity were not taken into account, which may influence cortisol responses.

Starcke, K., Mayr, J., & von Georgi, R. (2021). Emotion modulation through music after sadness induction—The Iso principle in a controlled experimental study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12486. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312486

Abstract

This study discusses how the Iso Principle may be extended to the domain of emotion regulation with music after induced sadness. In the experiment, participants were taken through an experimental mood where they became sad, then exposed to music that was, first, mood-congruent with the sad mood and second mood-incongruent. The study identified that participants produced less catharsis and were unable to relieve their feelings of sadness while listening to congruent music. It offers a view into how interventions informed by music can presumably be efficacious for emotion regulation within a therapeutic context.

Annotation

Starcke et al. (2021) evaluated the Iso Principle, where music that corresponds to the subject’s current mood for emotional regulation is played. Mood-congruent and mood-incongruent music was played to participants who had been through the method of sadness induction earlier. Notably, mood-congruent music helped deal with feelings of sadness; it provided participants with positive emotion, compared to the music which was labeled as incongruent. These results indicate that relating music to one’s present state can aid mood processing and initial return to a more balanced state, providing evidence for the Iso Principle in therapeutic techniques targeting mood regulation.

Starcke et al.’s (2021) study presents a contrast from another tempo-based study, such as Lin et al. (2023), because there is less focus on tempo or genre but rather more concern on the pleasantness of the music. At the same time, it differs from arousal-based studies such as those of Patania et al. (2020); it concerns emotion processing and thus extends the applicability of music in mental health care even more.

The study’s use of control means that it may not reflect a true-to-life depiction of emotions and restrains variance in emotions to sadness only; therefore, generalizability is limited. Future research could examine the effect of the Iso Principle in various emotional conditions and in most settings.

Tervaniemi, M., Makkonen, T., & Nie, P. (2021). Psychological and physiological signatures of music listening in different listening environments—An exploratory study. Brain Sciences, 11(5), 593. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11050593

Abstract

This exploratory study is aimed at investigating how varied listening environments influence the psychological and physiological effects of music. In a sample of 37, the authors examined changes in heart rate, skin conductance, and mood while listening to music in two contrasting settings: a low-arousal situation and a high-arousal situation. The findings showed that a greater reduction in heart rate and enhanced mood change was highly significant in subjects exposed to the relaxed environment, mainly in relation to listening to slower-tempo music. As such, context considerably influences the result of music in both physiological and psychological states.

Annotation

Tervaniemi et al. (2021) discuss the interplay of music-listening contexts with physiological responses, pointing out that context is an important factor in shaping the effects of music. Heart rate and skin conductance were only a few physiological measures recorded as participants experienced music in both a relaxed and high-stimulation environment. Self-rated heart rates were slower during slow-tempo music, and subjects reported feeling happier during this condition in the relaxed setting, a setting that enhances the relaxing effects of music. These relaxing benefits were overshadowed by the high-stimulation environment, indicating how environmental pressures can negate the effect of music. These findings further prove that the effects of music on health and mood are complex, extending beyond the issues of tempo and genre by indicating that setting can alter physiological and emotional responses.

The results found by Tervaniemi et al. also support Kulinski et al.’s (2021) study, which indicated that slower music reduces physiological arousal, especially in calm environments. This contradicts studies on tempo and arousal, such as those by Lin et al. (2023); for instance, studies such as those by Tervaniemi et al. (2021) add a new dimension to the context.

Further, Tervaniemi et al.’s (2021) research is exploratory, and thus, without the control inherent in experimental designs, only limited causal conclusions are possible. Second, the environments utilized for the study may not represent the gamut of real-life contexts in which music has been known to function or influence human experience. Future studies across diverse contexts will better illuminate environmental impacts on the effects of music.

References

Ballmann, C. G. (2021). The influence of music preference on exercise responses and performance: A review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 6(2), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk6020033

Rasing, N. L., Janus, S. I. M., Kreutz, G., Sveinsdottir, V., Gold, C., Nater, U. M., & Zuidema, S. U. (2022). The impact of music on stress biomarkers: Protocol of a substudy of the cluster-randomized controlled trial music interventions for dementia and depression in early care (MIDDEL). Brain Sciences, 12(4), 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040485

Starcke, K., Mayr, J., & von Georgi, R. (2021). Emotion modulation through music after sadness induction—The Iso principle in a controlled experimental study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12486. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312486

ORDER A PLAGIARISM-FREE PAPER HERE

We’ll write everything from scratch

Question

This assignment is another building block for the final project.

Prompt
In Module Four, you will submit a revised description of the research question and hypothesis (or hypotheses) that will guide your research. You will also submit an annotated bibliography of at least six peer-reviewed sources. For each article, you will need to provide full bibliographic information, the abstract, and a summary of the key findings of the article and how they relate to your research question.

Your paper will include the following critical elements:

Create a testable research question based on previous research related to your chosen topic and a description of your research question’s relevance to the field of psychology. Make sure to address your instructor’s feedback from Milestone One, in which you submitted your preliminary research question.
Create a testable hypothesis based on your research question and research about the topic, explaining the extent to which the research supports your hypothesis.
Abstracts for at least six articles related to your research question and hypothesis. For the purposes of this assignment, it is acceptable to copy the abstract from each article and paste it into your paper. Each of the six articles should include the following elements:
1. Title and citation that follow proper APA format
2. Abstract
3. Annotation
Annotations for at least six articles.
1. Your annotated bibliography should do the following for each article:
  1. Evaluate the article and describe how it relates to the research question and hypothesis.
  2. Analyze how the article compares to other sources used in the bibliography using concrete examples.
    - How does this article relate to your other articles?
    - Do your other articles find the same outcomes?
    - Do other articles report different outcomes
    - How does this compare to your other five articles?
  3. Address the limitations of the articles and explain why these limitations matter.
    Research Question, Hypothesis, and Annotated Bibliography

What to Submit

Your paper must be submitted as an APA-formatted Microsoft Word document with double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, and one-inch margins. You must provide citations, abstracts, and annotations for at least six peer-reviewed articles.

Resources:

Textbook
- Beginning Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Primer,

Refer to the following helpful resources:

Step-by-Step Guide to Using the Shapiro Library This resource will help you look for articles.
A Bad Taste in the Mouth: Gustatory Disgust Influences Moral Judgment
- This example of an annotated article will help you better understand how research articles are structured.
Comparing the Annotated Bibliography to the Literature Review

Research Question, Hypothesis, and Annotated Bibliography

Research Question, Hypothesis, and Annotated Bibliography

References

How It Works

How to Avoid Plagiarism