Psychopharmacological Effects of Psychoactive Substances

Psychopharmacological Effects of Psychoactive Substances

Drugs of Abuse

Human beings have, since time immemorial, sought novel psychoactive substances which tend to alter their mental states. Psychoactive drugs refer to any substances or drugs that affect how the brain functions and alter behavior, mood, feelings, thoughts, and awareness. Such drugs induce a sense of well-being or euphoria, directly reinforcing consumption and drug-seeking behaviors (Hassan et al., 2017). Most psychoactive substances tend to induce some behaviors with negative or positive reinforcing outcomes like coping with stress, mating behavior, facilitation of social interaction, and cognitive enhancement. Some of the common psychoactive substances are nicotine, marijuana, caffeine, alcohol, and heroin. In this paper, the drugs of abuse that will be discussed are alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine.

Substance Dependence

Alcohol intoxication can vary based on an individual’s tolerance, genetics, nutrition or lifestyle, comorbidities, and exposure to environmental drugs and alcohol (Rusyn & Bataller, 2013). Alcohol toxicity and intoxication take place when one consumes a large amount of alcohol within a short period. Intoxication takes place in 7 stages, namely, low-level intoxication or sobriety. At this stage, an individual has consumed one or fewer drinks in an hour and is considered sober. Their behavior will be normal without noticeable signs of intoxication, like delayed reaction time or slurred speech. The blood alcohol content at this stage is between 0.01 and 0.05 percent (Cirino, 2018). The second level is euphoria, which takes place when a man drinks 2 to 3 drinks and a woman 1 to 2 drinks in an hour. At this point, one has increased confidence and chattiness, reduced inhibitions, and delayed reaction time. BAC is between 0.03 and 0.12 percent at this stage. Stage 3 is excitement, which happens when a man drinks up to 5 drinks and a woman drinks up to 4 drinks in an hour. Symptoms include loss of balance, loss of memory and judgment, drowsiness, and vision problems. BAC is at 0.09 to 0.25 percent. Stage 4 involves confusion where a woman has over four drinks and a man over five drinks, causing them to have emotional outbursts and a high loss of coordination. At this stage, an individual might be unable to stand up, stagger while walking, get confused about their surroundings, forget what is happening, lose consciousness, and feel pain, hence endangering them to injury. The BAC at this point is between 0.18 and 0.30 percent. Stage 5 is one of stupor, where individuals fail to react to things around them, are unable to walk or stand, and may vomit uncontrollably. The BAC at this point is at 0.25 to 0.4 percent. The 6^th stage is a coma, which is highly dangerous. One’s blood circulation and breathing may be highly slowed, their motor and gag responses nonfunctional, and one’s body temperature reduced. Such a person is at risk of death, and their BAC is between 0.35 and 0.45 percent. The last stage is death, where the BAC is above 0.45 percent (Cirino, 2018). For many, continued excessive consumption of alcohol is likely to cause alcohol dependence, which is linked to withdrawal syndrome whenever consumption ceases or is highly lessened. The fear of withdrawal causes some individuals to continue drinking. Some of the withdrawal symptoms include shakiness, loss of appetite, sweating, agitation, irritability, restlessness, vomiting or nausea, nervousness, anxiety, motor seizures and disorientation, among others (Becker, 2008).

Nicotine poisoning can occur due to toxicity from nicotine products. Nicotine toxicity and intoxication symptoms normally mimic those of an organophosphate or a nerve agent poisoning and include excess oral secretions, nausea, lethargy, seizure, shallow breathing, diarrhea, vomiting, convulsions, confusion, and abdominal cramping (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). Whereas nicotine intoxication is rare, it has become more prominent due to the use of new nicotine products like vaping and pure liquid nicotine. For adults weighing about 150 pounds, about 60 milligrams of nicotine is considered deadly. Nicotine is highly addictive, and withdrawal symptoms will depend on the length of time one has smoked. Such symptoms include increased cravings and appetite, dizziness, headaches, fatigue, irritability, depression, mental fog, anxiety, and cough (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021).

Caffeine intoxication can occur when one consumes high levels of caffeine within a short period daily. Caffeine intoxication symptoms include trouble breathing, hallucinations, chest pain, vomiting, convulsions, fast or irregular heartbeat, and confusion. Common withdrawal symptoms arising from prolonged use of caffeine include irritability, depression, drowsiness, fatigue, muscle stiffness or pain, vomiting, nausea, difficulty concentrating and headache (Sajadi-Ernazarova et al., 2021).

Characteristics of Social Use, Abuse, and Dependence

Individuals’ social networks and contacts could influence their behaviors and norms. Peer pressure is said to be a significant predictor of individuals’ (especially young people) drinking behavior, as social interactions could trigger one to drink less or more (Gustafsson et al., 2021). Situational aspects could also trigger drug use and abuse, and settings that encourage the use of drugs could cause one to use or even abuse them. When this is done occasionally, then substance dependence occurs. Consumption of alcohol is considered socially desirable and acceptable, particularly in Western nations, and binge drinking is highly common, especially under peer influence (Pakovic et al., 2019). Depending on one’s positive or negative effects of alcohol on a social setting, dependence may or may not occur in the long run, and such dependence is only augmented in social settings.

The use of nicotine or tobacco is considered a socially mediated and learned behavior (Lynch & Bonnie, 2014). Experimenting with tobacco is highly attractive and desirable among youths and children since tobacco use is linked to a certain social identity. Furthermore, the ubiquitous and repeated messages that reinforce the positive traits of tobacco use give the impression that it is socially acceptable, normative, and pervasive in various social contexts. Tobacco consumption is associated with individuals who are attractive, successful, liberated, and seek to enjoy life, express their individuality and are considered socially secure (Lynch & Bonnie, 2014). Such positive messages linked with tobacco use encourage people to use tobacco in social settings in order to fit in, and continued use is likely to cause dependence. This dependence is also encouraged in social settings where chain smokers are available. Social smokers normally deny personal nicotine addiction, have a low probability of lessening tobacco use in reaction to smoke-free laws, and tend to self-categorize as non-smokers (Schane, Glantz & Ling, 2009).

Coffee is one of the most common caffeinated drinks in various cultures. Coffee drinking is an essential social custom that stimulates social interaction and confers adult status since kids are disallowed from drinking it. Coffee drinking is encouraged in most social gatherings, at work, and in business meetings. It is linked with mood, social enhancement, appetite suppression, physical performance enhancement, work, and energy enhancement, and dependence occurs from increased use of caffeinated beverages (Agoston et al., 2018).

Psychopharmacological Effects

Some of the psychopharmacological effects of alcohol intoxication include positive feelings of relaxation and euphoria, and increased excessive use could result in impulsive behaviors and poor decision-making. Alcohol withdrawal can cause depression and increased craving for alcohol to curb withdrawal symptoms. Alcohol users are three times more likely to smoke, and tobacco users are 4 times more likely to become alcohol dependent than the general population (Adams, 2017). Nicotine stimulates dopamine release, hence making one feel happy and having high energy and pleasure. However, when it is out of one’s system, one feels tired and gets a headache. Caffeine also makes one feel happy, wakeful, and alert and has a considerable energy boost, but withdrawal effects like headaches and drowsiness occur once it is out of one’s system.

Intervention

Counseling can play a significant role in helping individuals deal with substance abuse and withdrawal effects. Cognitive behavioral therapy is said to be among the most efficacious ways of treating drug dependency. CBT can be done through motivational interventions, relapse prevention and contingency management (McHugh, Hearon & Otto, 2018). Motivational interviewing can be used by the counselor to target ambivalence towards behavior change in regard to the use of the specific drug. Countering the huge reinforcing impact of the drug is a major challenge. Contingency management has been considered highly effective in dealing with alcohol, opioids, and cocaine use.

Furthermore, the counselor can help prevent relapse by encouraging one to avoid high-risk situations like friends who trigger drinking or using or smoking tobacco and nicotine. The patient can be helped with better coping skills to prevent them from substance use. Withdrawal effects can be dealt with through pharmacotherapy such as Naltrexone, Bupropion, and aspirin for alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine, respectively. These drugs can also help lessen cravings.

References

Adams, S. (2017). Psychopharmacology of tobacco and alcohol comorbidity: a review of current evidence. Current addiction reports, 4(1), 25-34.

Ágoston, C., Urbán, R., Király, O., Griffiths, M. D., Rogers, P. J., & Demetrovics, Z. (2018). Why do you drink caffeine? The development of the Motives for Caffeine Consumption Questionnaire (MCQ) and its relationship with gender, age, and the types of caffeinated beverages. International journal of mental health and addiction, 16(4), 981-999.

Banerjee, P., Ali, Z., Levine, B., & Fowler, D. R. (2014). Fatal caffeine intoxication: a series of eight cases from 1999 to 2009. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 59(3), 865-868.

Becker, H. C. (2008). Alcohol dependence, withdrawal, and relapse. Alcohol Research & Health.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). 7 Common Withdrawal Symptoms. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/quit-smoking/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms/index.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Case Definition: Nicotine. Retrieved from https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/nicotine/casedef.asp

Cirino, E. (2018). Alcohol Intoxication: What You Should Know. Healthline. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/food-nutrition/vodka-calories#nutrition-facts

Gustafsson, N. K., Rydgren, J., Rostila, M., & Miething, A. (2021). Social network characteristics and alcohol use by ethnic origin: An ego-based network study on peer similarity, social relationships, and co-existing drinking habits among young Swedes. Plos one, 16(4), e0249120.

Hassan, Z., Bosch, O. G., Singh, D., Narayanan, S., Kasinather, B. V., Seifritz, E., … & Müller, C. P. (2017). Novel psychoactive substances—recent progress on neuropharmacological mechanisms of action for selected drugs. Frontiers in psychiatry, 8, 152.

Kashyap, M. (2021). Heroin Intoxication: Know the Signs, and Get Help Now. WebMD. Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/connect-to-care/addiction-treatment-recovery/heroin/signs-of-heroin-intoxication

Lynch, B. S., & Bonnie, R. J. (2014). Social norms and the acceptability of tobacco use. In Growing up Tobacco Free: Preventing Nicotine Addiction in Children and Youths. National Academies Press (US).

McHugh, R. K., Hearon, B. A., & Otto, M. W. (2018). Cognitive behavioral therapy for substance use disorders. Psychiatric Clinics, 33(3), 511-525.

Pakovic, L., Todorovic, J., Santric-Milicevic, M., Bukumiric, D., & Terzic-Supic, Z. (2019). The association between social characteristics, alcoholic beverage preferences, and binge drinking in a Serbian adult population. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 36(1), 36-50.

Rusyn, I., & Bataller, R. (2013). Alcohol and toxicity. Journal of hepatology, 59(2), 387-388.

Sajadi-Ernazarova, K. R., Anderson, J., Dhakal, A., & Hamilton, R. J. (2021). Caffeine withdrawal.

Schane, R. E., Glantz, S. A., & Ling, P. M. (2009). Social smoking: implications for public health, clinical practice, and intervention research. American journal of preventive medicine, 37(2), 124-131.

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This paper will outline current literature reporting behavioral, psychological, physical health, and social effects of psychoactive substances and addictive disorders on the user and significant others.

Psychopharmacological Effects of Psychoactive Substances

CACREP Section II.G & Addictions Counseling A-L

Include in this Research Paper:
Choose three identified drugs of abuse
For these three drugs of abuse, discuss drug dependence relative to psychoactive substance toxicity, intoxication, and withdrawal symptoms.
For these three drugs of abuse, discuss the characteristics of social use, abuse, and dependence.
Identify the psychopharmacological effects of these three identified drugs. These effects should include effects when intoxicated as well as effects from withdrawal.
Discuss how a counselor could intervene with an individual using and withdrawing from each of these identified drugs. Give examples.
The assignment should be in APA Format.
The assignment should be five content pages (in addition to a title page and reference page).
Include at least three scholarly references. These references, within a literature review such as this, should not be older than five years. Scholarly references should be peer-reviewed journal articles, scholarly organizations, etc. Wikipedia is not considered a scholarly source for example.