Health Safety and Nutrition

Healthcare providers, patients, and their families are key health promotion and prevention stakeholders. Healthcare providers play an important role in patient education and in developing evidence-based treatment plans for patients. On the other hand, patients should adhere to the treatment plan to achieve optimum outcomes. This paper discusses the causes, complications, and management of the common cold, diaper rash, earache, and stomachache.

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The Common Cold

Causes

The common cold is an upper respiratory tract infection that is prevalent in primary healthcare. The common cold is a highly contagious viral infection predominantly caused by Rhinoviruses (Jaume et al., 2020). Rhinoviruses are single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses (Jaume et al., 2020). Other viruses that have been implicated include coronaviruses, adenoviruses, influenza, parainfluenza, and coxsackie viruses (Jaume et al., 2020). Common cold presents with rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, sneezing, fever, fatigue, malaise, coughing, and watery red eyes (Jaume et al., 2020).

Complications

Common cold increases the risk of various complications. They include sinusitis, otitis media, exacerbation of cystic fibrosis, asthma, and chronic bronchitis (Jaume et al., 2020). Otitis media is characterized by the presence of fluid and inflammation of the middle ear (Jaume et al., 2020). On the other hand, sinusitis is characterized by inflammation of the paranasal sinuses. This inflammation may lead to blockage of the sinuses and colonization by bacteria, hence bacterial sinusitis (Jaume et al., 2020). Common cold worsens the prognosis of reactive airway diseases such as cystic fibrosis and asthma. Rhinoviruses and respiratory syncytial viruses are the predominant agents that exacerbate reactive airway disease in patients below five years of age (Jaume et al., 2020). Common colds may also increase the risk of lower respiratory tract infections such as bronchiolitis (Jaume et al., 2020).

Management

An uncomplicated common cold should resolve spontaneously within seven to ten days. Notably, management entails various approaches, such as supportive care, symptom relief, and antibiotics (Jaume et al., 2020). Supportive care involves bed rest and administering adequate fluids. Pharmacological approaches entail administering analgesics such as acetaminophen, antitussives, and decongestants (Jaume et al., 2020). Antibiotics are only indicated in the presence of complications such as bacterial sinusitis.

Diaper Rash Infants

Causes

Diaper rash is a common condition in infants caused by various etiological factors. These include infrequent changing of diapers, lack of proper cleaning and drying of the skin around the diaper area, lack of topical applications on the diaper areas, and diarrhea (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). The presence of wetness, urine, fecal matter, and periodic friction around the diaper area promotes the development of diaper rash (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Additionally, elevated pH around the diaper area increases the activity of fecal enzymes (proteases and lipases) that worsen skin irritation (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Diaper rash may also develop secondary to other infections. These include Candida albicans, staphylococcus aureus, enteric anaerobes, and streptococcus pyogenes (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022).

Complications

Diaper rash predisposes the infant to various complications. Firstly, it increases the risk of scabbing and bleeding. Secondly, it increases the risk of hypopigmentation. Hypopigmentation is reversible, and the timeframe depends on the severity of the condition. Thirdly, diaper rash increases the risk of both fungal and bacterial infections. Infections are common when diaper rashes last more than three days (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Notably, Candida albicans account for approximately 49 to 75 percent of these secondary infections (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Bacterial infections are evidenced by bullous impetigo (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and enteric anaerobes have been implicated in the occurrence of these bacterial infections (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022).

Management

Various strategies are used to manage diaper rash. Firstly, high standards of hygiene should be maintained. Proper hygiene is accomplished by changing diapers frequently and embracing superabsorbent diapers (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Secondly, topical emollients should be applied. They create a barrier and protect the skin from fecal, urine, and diaper contact. They also prevent skin over-hydration. Examples of these agents include zinc oxide, petrolatum, dimethicone, and glycerin (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Moderate to severe cases should be managed with topical corticosteroids with low potency. Fungal diaper rash caused by Candida albicans should be managed with topical antifungal agents such as nystatin and miconazole (Ojeda & Mendez, 2022). Colonization by bacteria warrants the use of topical antibiotics and systemic antibiotics for severe cases.

Earaches

Causes

Blockage of the ear canal causes earache. Also, blockage of the ear canal blocks fluid drainage and causes pressure buildup in the eardrum (Torun et al., 2022). Increased pressure on the eardrum causes pain (Torun et al., 2022). This can be caused by upper respiratory tract infections, allergies, or infections of the middle ear or ear canal (Torun et al., 2022). Bacteria or viruses can colonize blocked fluid in the ear canal. Viral infections accompany upper respiratory tract infections and present with mild discomfort (Torun et al., 2022). On the other hand, colonization by bacteria causes severe earache and fever. Streptococcus pneumonia, group B Streptococcus, and non-typable Haemophilus influenza are examples of bacteria that colonize fluid in the ear canal (Torun et al., 2022).

Complications

The complications of earache are dependent on etiological factors. Earaches caused by bacterial infection increase the risk of abscess formation, mastoiditis, and hearing impairment (Torun et al., 2022). Perforations may cause hearing impairment in the eardrum due to poorly managed chronic infections (Torun et al., 2022). Earaches caused by bacterial infections may also affect a child’s cognitive and speech development (Torun et al., 2022).

Management

Management of earache is directed toward the causative agent. Symptomatic relief is provided by analgesic agents such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen (Torun et al., 2022). The application of a warm heating pad helps to relieve the pain. Antibiotics are indicated for moderate to severe earache secondary to bacterial colonization of the fluid in the ear canal (Torun et al., 2022). Furthermore, antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated in patients with recurrent episodes (Torun et al., 2022).

Stomachaches in Young Children

Causes

Various factors may cause stomachaches in young children, including gastroenteritis. Pediatric gastroenteritis is usually viral. Rotavirus is the predominant etiological factor for this infection (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021). The other manifestations of gastroenteritis include diarrhea, vomiting, and fever (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021). Secondly, pediatric stomachache can be caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. In children, gastroesophageal reflux disease is accompanied by other manifestations such as burping, vomiting, and upper abdominal pain (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021). Thirdly, pediatric stomachache may be caused by constipation. Constipation delays bowel movement and may contribute to stomach pain. Stomachaches in children may also be caused by other conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease or allergies to food (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021).

Complications

Poorly managed chronic stomachache may predispose the patient to various complications. Chronic pain caused by conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease is likely to cause structural changes in the digestive system (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021). Chronic pain is also likely to cause or alter feeding habits and cause psychological problems such as depression and anxiety.

Management

The management of stomachache is also dependent on the etiological factor. Viral gastroenteritis is self-limiting. It is managed by administering adequate fluids and via oral rehydration therapy (Hartman et al., 2019). Furthermore, zinc supplements should be administered to reduce the severity of the disease (Hartman et al., 2019). Bacterial gastroenteritis is managed by administering antibiotics (Hartman et al., 2019). On the other hand, gastroesophageal reflux is managed by administering proton pump inhibitors and histamine 2 receptor antagonists (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021). Further, constipation is managed by administering laxatives and dietary modifications such as taking adequate fluids (ClevelandClinic.org, 2021). Food allergy-related stomachache is managed by eliminating the allergen. Generally, analgesics should be administered to promote pain relief.

References

ClevelandClinic.org. (2021). Stomachaches in Kids: 5 Things Parents Should Know. https://health.clevelandclinic.org/stomachaches-5-things-parents-should-know/

Hartman, S., Brown, E., Loomis, E., & Russell, H. A. (2019). Gastroenteritis in children. American Family Physician, 99(3), 159-165. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0201/p159.html?cmpid=em_AFP_20190201

Jaume, F., Valls-Mateus, M., & Mullol, J. (2020). Common Cold and Acute Rhinosinusitis: Up-to-Date Management in 2020. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 20(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-020-00917-5

Ojeda, B. A. B., & Mendez M. D. (2022). Diaper Dermatitis. StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559067

Torun, M.T., Bayar Muluk, N., El-Saggan, A. (2022). Otalgia: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment. In: Cingi, C., Arısoy, E.S., Bayar Muluk, N. (eds) Pediatric ENT Infections. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80691-0_13

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