Article Analysis

1. According to the study’s authors, what are two reasons why it is important for researchers to study concussions (p. 1)?

Approximately 50 million people experience concussions each year, and 15% of those who get them end up having chronic neurocognitive issues (Song et al., 2024, p. 1). In addition, concussions are associated with diffuse axonal injury (DAI) and disrupt the connectivity within the brain networks, thus contributing to permanent neurocognitive impairments (Song et al., 2024, p. 1): Article Analysis.

2. What are axons, and what is their function in the brain? Why do the authors focus on damage to axons in this concussion study (pp. 1–2)?

Effective communication across the nervous system is ensured by axons, which are long neuronal projections that carry electrical impulses from one area of the brain to another (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). The authors concentrate on axon damage since axons are physically susceptible to mechanical deformation during concussions, especially in the white matter. This can result in decreased connection and contribute to the clinical signs of DAI (Song et al., 2024, pp. 1–2).

3. What are two reasons why it is important to study sex differences in the experience of concussion (p. 2)? How could this have implications in real life, outside of the research setting?

Compared to men participating in the same sports, studies show that female athletes have a higher chance of sustaining concussions and often experience worse consequences (Song et al., 2024, p. 2). In order to reduce concussion-related morbidity, it is vital to research sex differences in order to guide clinical methods, safety standards, and gender-specific rehabilitation regimens (Koerte et al., 2020).

4. The researchers used a “swine model” to examine sex differences in concussion. What is a swine model, and why use this method (p. 2–3)?

A swine model entails using pigs since their brains are similar to human brains and have extensive areas of white matter (Song et al., 2024, pp. 2–3). This method provides a clinically relevant model for studying concussions, allowing researchers to simulate human-like rotational acceleration injuries and examine sex-specific axonal responses (Oeur et al., 2023).

5. Identify and explain at least two ethical issues the researchers had to consider when conducting this study (p. 3).

The researchers had to ensure ethical treatment of the animals by minimizing suffering, using anesthesia during injury procedures, and monitoring recovery closely (Song et al., 2024, p. 3). They also sought the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) approval and ensured that the study complied with the ARRIVE guidelines on the use of animals (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).

6. What was the researcher’s primary research question (p. 1/abstract; p. 2)? Based on their justification for the study (pp. 1–3), what do you think their hypothesis was?

The main research issue was whether the degree of immediate axonal damage after a concussion varies by sex (Song et al., 2024, p. 1). Based on the study’s rationale regarding smaller axon sizes in females and previous findings, the idea was that following a concussion, females would have more axonal damage than males (Song et al., 2024, p. 2).

7. Explain what an experimental design is and how you know the researchers in this study used one (p. 2–3).

An experimental design involves the manipulation of one or more variables to determine causal relationships under controlled conditions (American Psychiatric Association, 2022, p. 18). In this study, the researchers used an experimental design by randomly assigning swine into sham and injury groups and applying a standardized concussion model to test the effects of sex on axonal damage outcomes (Song et al., 2024, pp. 2–3).

8. Explain the main results of this study with regard to sex differences in axonal size and small calibre axons, swollen axonal profiles, and loss of axonal sodium channels (abstract, p. 5–9). Do the results support the researchers’ hypotheses?

According to the study, female pigs had a greater percentage of small-calibre axons, displayed more swollen axonal profiles, and experienced greater loss of axonal sodium channels compared to males (Song et al., 2024, pp. 5–9). These findings support the researchers’ hypothesis, suggesting that the structural vulnerability of female axons contributes to more severe axonal pathology after concussion.

9. Identify and explain at least two strengths of this study (p. 1–14).

A strength of the study is the use of a swine model that replicates the biomechanics of human concussion, thus offering a high level of translation (Song et al., 2024, p. 2). In addition, the effective synthesis of varied assessment tools, such as immunohistochemistry for amyloid precursor protein, sodium channel assessment journey, and transmission electron microscopy, provides consistent validation of axonal lesions (Song et al., 2024, pp. 5–9).

10. Identify and explain at least 2 limitations of this study (p. 14). How could these limitations be addressed in future research studies?

One limitation of this study is that assessment of axonal damage was taken only 24 hours after injury, thus limiting understanding of how the injury affects the brain in the long term. Future research should encompass different time frames. Another limitation was the small sample size; future research with larger groups is needed for increased reliability and validity of results (Song et al., 2024, p. 14).

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787

Koerte, I. K., Schultz, V., Sydnor, V. J., Howell, D. R., Guenette, J. P., Dennis, E., Kochsiek, J., Kaufmann, D., Sollmann, N., Mondello, S., Shenton, M. E., & Lin, A. P. (2020). Sex‐related differences in the effects of sports‐related concussion: A review. Journal of Neuroimaging, 30(4), 387–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/jon.12726

Oeur, A., Torp, W. H., Arbogast, K. B., Master, C. L., & Margulies, S. S. (2023). Altered auditory and visual evoked potentials following single and repeated low-velocity head rotations in 4-week-old swine. Biomedicines, 11(7), 1816–1816. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11071816

Song, H., Tomasevich, A., Paolini, A., Browne, K. D., Wofford, K. L., Kelley, B., Kantemneni, E., Kennedy, J., Qiu, Y., Schneider, A. L. C., Dolle, J., Cullen, D. K., & Smith, D. H. (2024). Sex differences in the extent of acute axonal pathologies after experimental concussion. Acta Neuropathologica, 147(79), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-024-02735-9

ORDER A PLAGIARISM-FREE PAPER HERE

We’ll write everything from scratch

Follow these steps to complete the Article Analysis:

Complete this assignment in two pages.

Step 1: Read the peer-reviewed, scientific journal article.

*The citation for this article in APA style is:

Song, H., Tomasevich, A., Paolini, A. Browne, K. D., Wofford, K. L., Kelley, B., Kantemneni, E., Kennedy, J., Qui, Y., Schneider, A. L. C., Dolle, J., Cullen, D. K., & Smith, D. H. (2024). Sex differences in the extend of acute axonal pathologies after experimental concussion. Acta Neuropathological, 147 (79), 1-17.

Article Analysis

Step 2: List the following questions in a word processing document, using 12-point font and 1-inch margins.

1. According to the study’s authors, what are 2 reasons why it is important for researchers to study concussions (p. 1)?
2. What are axons and what is their function in the brain? Why do the authors focus on damage to axons in this concussion study (p. 1-2, textbook)?
3. What are two reasons why it is important to study sex differences in the experience of concussion (p. 2)? How could this have implications in real life, outside of the research setting?
4. The researchers in this study used a “swine model” to model and examine sex differences in concussion. What is a swine model, and why would they use this method as a way of better understanding concussions in humans (p. 2-3)?
5. Identify and explain at least 2 ethical issues the researchers had to consider when conducting this study (p. 3, textbook).
6. What was the researcher’s primary research question in this study (p. 1/abstract; p. 2)? Based on their justification for the study (p. 1-3), what do you think their hypothesis was?
7. Explain what an experimental design is and how you know that the researchers in this study used one (p. 2-3, textbook).
8. Explain the main results of this study with regard to sex differences in axonal size and amount of small caliber axons, swollen axonal profiles, and loss of axonal sodium channels following concussion (abstract, p. 5-9). Do the results support the researchers’ hypotheses? How do you know?
9. Identify and explain at least 2 strengths of this study (p. 1-14).
10. Identify and explain at least 2 limitations of this study (p. 14) and how these limitations could be addressed in future research studies. Be specific.

Step 3: Using information from the provided article, answer each question with 2 – 4 complete sentences.

*You also may use information from your textbook. In each question, there are general clues as to where you may find information that is helpful to you in answering them.

Step 4: Check your document to ensure that you have followed ALL instructions, that you have answered ALL questions, and that your answers are clear, accurate, detailed and in complete sentences.

Resource:

• DSM-5-TR