Understanding Key Sociological Terms through Major Theoretical Perspectives

Understanding Key Sociological Terms through Major Theoretical Perspectives

Define ONE of the groups of key terms and explain them with three sociological perspectives: structural-functional, social-conflict and symbolic-interaction.

Group 1: Deviance and positive vs. negative sanctions (keep in mind; deviance is different than crime)

Group 2: Social stratification and social classes (keep in mind social classes are types of social categories)

Group 3: Digital Media and Social Network (keep in mind that social networks are more humane than digital media)

Deviance refers to the violation of norms (OpenStax 149). For a behavior to be considered deviant, different contextual definitions, people’s response to the behavior and the overall situation have to be considered. The society aims to limit deviant behavior by using sanctions to help maintain a social control system. Three main sociological perspectives provide different explanations for the motivation of deviant behavior. The functionalist school of thought argues that deviance refers to a social necessity because it strengthens norms by reminding the rest of the population of the results of violating them (OpenStax 149). Violation of norms can open the eyes of society to the injustices in the social system. Emile Durkheim argued that deviance is vital for the success of a community because it challenges the current views of people. For example, when black students in the U.S. took part in sit-ins during the civil rights movement, they were against society’s normal notions of segregation (OpenStax 138).

Social conflict theorists may see deviance as a result of the different social classes that compete for political, material and social resources like leisure time, education, employment, housing and food. A person may not accept their social status, and therefore, they may work competitively to achieve it, which enables society to label them. Additionally, Karl Marx did not quite address deviance directly, but he labeled the wealthy people, those who held the factors of business and production, the bourgeois (OpenStax 140). He also labeled the employees who were dependent on the bourgeois for employment as the proletariat (OpenStax 140). Further, according to Wright Mills, it is the ability of those in power, the bourgeois, to define deviance in a manner that would maintain a status quo. The symbolic interactionist school of thought aims at the socially constructed nature of the labels concerning deviance. This means that what is seen as deviant is determined not so much by the deviant behaviors themselves or the persons committing them but by other people’s reactions to these behaviors (OpenStax 141).

One way of rule enforcement is through sanctions, which can be negative or positive. According to Little et al. (2014), positive sanctions refer to giving rewards when one conforms to norms, whereas negative sanctions refer to punishments when one violates norms. As argued by functionalist theorists, for a society to function well, the norms must be challenged. Being arrested is a negative sanction for stealing. This sends a message to the community that stealing is wrong and should not be tolerated. On the other hand, positive sanctions such as praise or being gifted for working hard at school send a message to the community that working hard yields good results. OpenStax (137) finds that negative and positive sanctions play essential roles in social control.

Conflict theory does not particularly address positive and negative sanctions. However, based on the conflict theory understanding, the wealthy in society, including military leaders, celebrities, politicians, and executives, often have access to international and national power, and in many cases, their decisions affect everybody in society, especially the proletariats. Due to this, societal rules favor them at the expense of those with less power, the proletariats. For instance, a negative sanction may involve violators of the set norms in the society being ranked low in a group. In most cases, the people with less power may be jailed, fined or ridiculed (Johnson 9).

On the other hand, if the violator is a wealthy person, they may suffer less punishment, such as losing privileges for a while. Additionally, if a prosperous person violates a segregation rule, they may eventually receive promotion or praise as a positive sanction because they have defied a toxic law. Overall, based on symbolic interactionism, if people react positively about a person and their behavior, then that is considered a positive sanction, whereas if they label the situation as undesirable, then the situation is a negative sanction.

What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative data? How can you use them in macro and micro level of analysis in sociology? Please explain in detail with examples.

Quantitative data uses statistical approaches like surveys with large numbers of participants (OpenStax 13). Sociological researchers use statistical techniques to find out if they can unravel human behavioral patterns. On the other hand, qualitative data aims to understand human behavior through learning about it through content analysis, focus groups, and in-depth interviews (OpenStax 13). The content analysis includes popular media, journals, magazines and books. Researchers may use quantitative data to understand how every part of society functions together and contributes to the whole functioning of the community. For instance, researchers may want to determine how many students participate in sit-ins to undermine segregation rules. They may also want to consider how many leaders and politicians support them and how many do not. In a micro-level analysis, the researchers may interact one-on-one with the students through focus groups, interviews, or reviewing books and journals to discover the reasons behind the sit-ins.

Explain your favorite sociological perspective (structural-functional, social-conflict, or symbolic-interactional) with examples.

The structural-functional theory views society as a structure with parts that are interrelated designed to meet the social and biological needs of the individuals in that whole society (OpenStax 15). For instance, when Martin Luther King led people against the segregation laws in the U.S., it was a functional situation to balance the rights of all people when it came to voting and accessing social amenities.

Explain your favorite sociological research method (survey, field research, experiment, or secondary data analysis) with examples.

An in-depth interview refers to a conversation that a researcher has with subjects one-on-one to carry out surveys on a specific topic (OpenStax 35). For instance, a researcher may have an interview with an Indian immigrant to find out their opinions and attitudes about mental healthcare in the U.S. They can seek clarification in the interview by asking questions and even adding questions since it is an open discussion.

Explain the reliability and validity of your research methods with examples.

Reliability refers to measuring the consistency of a study that considers how possible results can be replicated when a research study is reproduced (OpenStax 31). On the other hand, validity refers to the level to which a measure of sociology accurately reflects the topic of the research study. For example, in interviewing Indian immigrants in a specific location such as Louisiana, I would carry out research on the other authors or researchers who have researched on the same or similar topic with this particular group to ensure that the research has something new to discover or build on the previous research. This would be considered reliable. Conversely, validity would be determined by finding out if the research study has answered the research questions intended to be answered. For instance, what are some of the reasons why Indian immigrants do not seek mental healthcare in the U.S.?

Explain Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination with examples.

Wright Mill’s sociological perspective was on the power elite, and his understanding was mainly based on conflict theory. He described the power elite as a small category of people in the society that are wealthy and hold power over resources in the society. They include people like military leaders, celebrities, politicians and executives who often have access to worldwide and national power and influence the decisions that affect everyone in the society (OpenStax 140). Due to this, societal rules are stacked in favor of those who also manipulate the resources to stay on the top rank, even at the expense of the less privileged. For instance, this explains why many black people were punished or killed during the 1950s nonviolent civil disobedience led by the late Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., as they tried to vote or eat in white-dominated restaurants and even attend white-dominated schools.

What is your favorite part of the online course? Explain.

My most favorite part of the online course is researching secondary sources in online books and journals. This is because it is easier to solicit data and filter the exact information that one wants.

What is your least favorite part of the online course? Explain. Do you have any suggestions for the online course?

My least favorite part is that the body of information is massive, which may make it challenging to decide on the sources to use. Online sources can provide a summary of every source’s content so that a user can have a preview before opening the entire source.

Practice from the Online Textbook (Total 700 Points)

Chapter 10: Global Stratification

What are the factors of global stratification?

The factors of global stratification include wealth, purchasing power and income (OpenStax 194).

The reasons of global stratification:

Cold war terminology is about the classification of countries into the third world, second world and first world nation-states based on standards of living and economic development (OpenStax 207).

Immanuel Wallerstein’s Word System Approach is (based on economic activities)

Immanuel Wallerstein’s Word System Approach is a theory that understands the global economy as an intricate system that supports economic hierarchy that puts some countries in powerful positions with many resources and other countries in a position of economic subordination (OpenStax 207).

Core nations are dominant capitalist nation-states, urbanized, technological and highly industrialized (OpenStax 207).

Peripheral nations are nation-states with minimal industrialization with means and factories of production owned by the core nations (OpenStax 207).

Semi-peripheral nations are countries that are not so powerful in dictating policy but act as the main source of raw materials and the increasing middle-class marketplace for the core nations while at the same time exploiting the peripheral countries (OpenStax 207).

Word Bank Economy Classification by Gross Nation Income (GNI)

Explain the GNI: The GNI is a measurement of the current value of services and goods produced by a nation-state (OpenStax 196).

High-income nations are countries with a gross national income of $12,746 per capita (OpenStax 208).

Capital flight is the capital movement from one country to another, like how General Motors shut factories in the U.S. and opened in Mexico (OpenStax 208).

Deindustrialization is the result of capital flight when no new companies open jobs or when jobs are lost to foreign countries (OpenStax 208).

Middle-income nations are countries with GNI per capita of $1,045 and more but not more than $12,746 (OpenStax 210).

Depth accumulation is the external debt build-up, wherein nation-states borrow money from other nation-states to fund their growth goals expansion (OpenStax 210).

Low-income nations are countries whose per capita GNI was at most $1,045 in 2013 (OpenStax 210).

What does it mean to be poor? Read the online textbook and explain in your own words:

Being poor may be relative because while to some it means not being able to afford the basic necessities of life, to others it means not being able to afford the luxury things like owning a car, television or a smartphone (OpenStax 211).

Types of Poverty:

Relative poverty is (with examples) a situation of living where other people can afford the necessities but cannot meet the average living standard set by society (211). For example, living without a car to drive to work where every other person is, is considered relative poverty.

Absolute poverty is (with examples) is when one cannot afford the basic necessities, including safe housing, clean water, adequate food and access to healthcare (OpenStax 211). For example, people in Somalia where conflict is protracted may live in absolute poverty requiring international intervention such as relief food, water and sanitation.

Subjective poverty is (with examples) poverty with numerous dimensions and is subjectively present when one’s real income fails to meet their perceptions and expectations (OpenStax 212). A person who spends a few dollars a day in an African country may view themselves as doing well, but a western tourist who visits the country and meets this person may see an extreme need in this person.

Read “The Underground Economy Around the world”

What is the underground economy? Explain with examples:

The underground economy is an unregulated market that is not hindered by human protections, government permits, and taxes (212). This market may involve unlicensed cab drivers, sellers of artwork selling from their homes without any license, or a group of youths offering loans with interests without any government or legal regulations.

Who are the impoverished? Who is living in absolute poverty? Explain with examples.

The impoverished are people in the society whose strength the make wealth are weakened, such as women in the third world with huge responsibilities in their families (213). These women may not have the time nor the strength to learn new skills to make wealth. People living in absolute poverty cannot afford basic needs like food, water and sanitation, such as the displaced families who do not have homes or sources of income.

Global feminization of poverty is the disproportionate bearing of the burden of poverty, mainly by women (OpenStax 213).

Why is this happening?

The consequences and persistence of biases against women and intra-household inequalities

The increase in the number of the female-headed households

The implementation of policies of neoliberalism around the world

Choose one continent or region; Africa, Asia, MENA to explain the poverty:

African poverty is mainly attributed to colonial masters who seized land and used it unwisely, leaving little land for mineral and agricultural wealth on the continent (OpenStax 213). Other parts of Africa experience little or no rainfall, making it hard to cultivate agriculture and meet basic needs.

What are the consequences of poverty? Explain.

Consequences of poverty include sedimentation of global inequality, poor mental and physical health, and increased prevalence of crime (OpenStax 213). OpenStax finds it hard to reverse poverty once it has struck a place, and people may get malnourished since the right nutrients are not consumed because the needed food is not available. This affects their mental health because they become emotionally distressed trying to find food. Some may even indulge in crime to get food, such as violent conflict.

Slavery is any circumstance where people are treated as property and not humans, sold or coerced to work hard for little or no pay (215).

Chattel slavery is slavery that involves one person owning another person like that once practiced in the American South (OpenStax 215).

Debt bondage is when the poor pledge make a pledge as servants in exchange for the basic necessities cost such as board, room and transportation (216).

Social perspectives on Global Stratification:

Modernization Theory (macro-level, structural-functional perspective) is a perspective that holds that low-income nation-states are affected by their absence of industrialization and can enhance their position in the global economy via industrialization and other economic growth forms as well as via an adjustment of attitudes towards work and cultural values (OpenStax 216).

Dependency Theory (macro level, social conflict perspective) is a perspective that holds that global inequality is primarily caused by the high-income nation-states exploiting the third and second world countries, thus creating a dependence cycle (OpenStax 216).

Works Cited

Johnson, Harry M. Sociology: a systematic introduction. New York: Routledge, (2013).

Little, William, et al. “Introduction to Sociology-1st Canadian edition. (2014).

OpenStax. Introduction to Sociology 2e. Texas: Rice University, (2017).

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Define ONE of the key terms and explain them from three sociological perspectives: structural-functional, social-conflict, and symbolic interaction.
Group 1: Deviance and positive vs. negative sanctions (keep in mind; deviance is different than crime)
Group 2: Social stratification and social classes (keep in mind social classes are types of social categories)
Group 3: Digital Media and Social Network (keep in mind that social networks are more humane than digital media)

What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative data? How can you use them at the macro and micro levels of sociology analysis? Please explain in detail with examples.

3. Explain your favorite sociological perspective (structural-functional, social-conflict, or symbolic-interactional) with examples.

4. Explain your favorite sociological research method (survey, field research, experiment, or secondary data analysis) with examples.

5. Explain reliability and validity in your research methods with examples.

6. Explain Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination with examples.

7. What is your most favorite part of the online course? Explain.

8. What is your least favorite part of the online course? Explain. Do you have any suggestions for the online course?