Understanding Behavioral Impacts of Drugs- A Summary of Chapters 7 and 8 from ‘Drugs and the Neuroscience of Behavior’ by Prus

Understanding Behavioral Impacts of Drugs- A Summary of Chapters 7 and 8 from ‘Drugs and the Neuroscience of Behavior’ by Prus

The seventh chapter of Prus’ Drug and the Neuroscience of Behavior discusses nicotine and caffeine as psychoactive agents. As elaborated in this text, nicotine is the active component of tobacco. In as much as several tobacco products do exist, cigarette remains the most utilized product. Cultivation of nicotine-containing plants remains a key commercial activity in many cultures. Traditional use utilizes whole plants, with the leaves chewed by some cultures to exploit its psychoactive effects. Various forms have been utilized in modern societies, with cigarette smoking, pipe smoking, and cigars being the most commonly used forms.

 Upon utilization of tobacco in either form, it follows normal pharmacokinetics with absorption dependent on the route of use. Nicotine is metabolized by the liver to produce active metabolite cotinine. Nicotine produces its effects upon binding to nicotinic cholinergic receptors located in the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens (Stiles et al., 2017). Its effects are evident in increased sympathomimetic activity. The addictive nature of nicotine is attributable to its dopaminergic effects in the nucleus accumbens, whereas its harmful effects, such as carcinogenic capability, result from other substances found in tobacco. Tobacco addiction follows habitual chronic use, with consequential withdrawal symptoms upon stoppage. However, pharmacological rehabilitative therapies with nicotine patches and antidepressant medication such as bupropion often offer relief.

Caffeine is also an active component in natural plants such as kola nuts and cocoa plants. It belongs to the xanthine class of chemical compounds. Other xanthine derivative compounds include theobromine and theophylline. Their use dates to the ancient past and has since remained in use. Caffeine is administered orally, and its metabolism occurs in the liver by the microsomal liver enzymes. Its elimination, however, varies and is dependent on an individual’s ability to metabolize it. Fast metabolizers exhibit considerably more rapid elimination compared to slow metabolizers. Caffeine produces its pharmacodynamic effects by interacting with the adenosine receptors. Their antagonism at these receptor sites is responsible for their psychoactive effects (Darakjian & Kaddoumi, 2019). These include enhanced alertness and mood improvement, among others. Excessive use has, however, been implicated in the development of dependence and tolerance. Their addictive potential is attributable to their dopaminergic effects. 

The eighth chapter of this book discusses alcohol as a substance with the potential for abuse. The chapter discusses alcohol as an antidepressant drug that is available in several beverages as ethyl alcohol. Other forms of alcohol are also available with no recommendation of safety for oral use. Such forms include methyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol, among others. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant that produces both relaxing and reinforcing effects on the nervous system. Alcohol is the most commonly utilized CNS depressant drug. Alcoholic drinks differ by concentrations, often measured by percentages as well as the method of production. Alcohol consumption dates to Neolithic cultures, with use being considered a social luxury. Its use, however, continues to date.

The pharmacokinetics of alcohol follow zero-order kinetics. It is principally absorbed through the upper intestine due to its ease of absorption both in hydrophobic and hydrophilic media. Its metabolism is regulated by enzymatic alcohol dehydrogenases available in the liver, stomach, and tissues. The effects of alcohol are due to its interactions with the GABA receptors to produce positive modulation of these receptors. Other effects attributable to alcohol include activation of serotonin receptors, inhibiting N-Methyl D-Aspartate receptors, and inhibiting calcium channel receptors, among others (Wang et al., 2020). Alcohol also produces indirect effects by activating the endocannabinoid receptors. This endocannabinoid effect is implicated in the addictive effects of alcohol as well as the pharmacological effects of alcohol.

Excessive and chronic use of alcohol often leads to tolerance, addiction, and dependence. Acute excessive alcohol use causes deterioration in well-being with accompanying headaches consequential of dehydration. Withdrawal symptoms are standard features upon stoppage of alcohol use among addicts. Withdrawal symptoms are often accompanied by seizures and coma, and in worse cases, often lead to death (Wang et al., 2020). Treatment strategies that utilize pharmacotherapeutics and psychotherapeutics, however, exist that are targeted at alleviating alcohol addiction.

References

Darakjian, L., & Kaddoumi, A. (2019). Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Model for Caffeine Disposition in Pregnancy. Molecular Pharmaceutics, 16(3), 1340-1349. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b01276

Stiles, M., Campbell, L., Graff, D., Jones, B., Fant, R., & Henningfield, J. (2017). Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic assessment of electronic cigarettes, combustible cigarettes, and nicotine gum: implications for abuse liability. Psychopharmacology, 234(17), 2643-2655. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4665-y

Wang, S., Chen, Y., Chen, S., Lee, C., & Cheng, C. (2020). Alcohol Addiction, Gut Microbiota, and Alcoholism Treatment: A Review. International Journal Of Molecular Sciences, 21(17), 6413. https://doi.org/10.3390/

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Name of Book: Drugs and the Neuroscience of Behavior by Prus
Read Chapters 7 and 8 of your Textbook
Summarize each Chapter for this assignment
A good suggestion with a summary is to write down, from memory, what the reading was about without returning initially to the original reading material. This way, you are using your thoughts and your own words.

Within the summary for these chapters, you want to use your own words, condense the information, and provide accurate representations of the main points. A summary should only highlight the main points of the reading.
The summary should be more than just an outline of the reading with direct quotes, sentences, words, etc., from the reading itself.
Include within the summary a reflection on the material you read. What were your thoughts, what did you learn, what would you like to learn more about?
APA format should be used. The textbook should be included as a reference.
At least two content pages are required (this does not include the title and reference pages).