Discipline-Based Literature Review – Psychological Tests
Introduction
Psychological tests refer to tools commonly used by psychologists and other mental health providers, scientists, managers, administrators, and health care professionals, among others, to aid in making various decisions about individuals and help comprehend human behavior. According to Goldfinger (2018), the main purpose is to measure human functioning characteristics such as attitudes, abilities, personality traits, abilities or feelings. This paper will focus on the assessment for adolescents or children with behavioral or emotional disorders as well as the assessment for people with neurocognitive disorders. The purpose is to evaluate different tests’ reliability and validity and recommend how best to enhance these factors.
Test Comparisons
One of the assessment tests for children or adolescents who suffer from behavioral or emotional problems is the Behavior Assessment System for Children’s Edition (BASC-3). This test was authored by Cecil Reynolds and Randy Kamphaus and is used to help in the comprehension of emotions and behaviors of adolescents and children. The test was published by Pearson in 2015 and targets individuals between the ages of 2 and 21 years and 11 months. The test comes in different forms: Student Observation System, Teacher Rating Scales, Parent Rating Scales, and Self-Report of Personality, among others. The first three are used to measure the child’s behavior patterns in school, community, and home settings.
The BASC-3 is said to be the most widely used test for managing and identifying emotional and behavioral weaknesses and strengths while making it possible for adolescents and children to attain their full potential. The comprehensive forms and rating scales help offer a complete picture of the emotions and behaviors of an adolescent or child. However, the BASC-3 test has various assessment components, which can be complicated for some users. Furthermore, according to Schmidt et al. (2021), when used among young and diverse children who are with and without disabilities, the BASC-3 psychometric properties tend to range from poor to good, hence showing mixed results.
The Child Behavior Checklist for children between the ages of 6 and 18 is another assessment test for adolescents or children with behavioral or emotional disorders. Thomas Achenbash and Rescorla authored this test. It was published by the Achenbash System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) in 2001 and is meant to measure various emotional and behavioral problems among children of school-going age. Similar to BASC-3, the CBCL/6-18 also comes in various forms, such as parent, self, and teacher ratings, as well as interviews and direct observations. Unlike the BASC-3, which is only available in English and Spanish, the CBCL/6-18 comes in over 100 languages.
The main advantage of the CBCL/6-18 test is the ease of answering statements in the checklist and comparing the results of the questions with the chart outlined by the psychotherapist. The rating scale system and checklist can also be applicable to over one child at a time; therefore, a teacher can use such a system to observe a group of children within the classroom for a period of time. However, the assessors are usually limited to a number of specified behavioral patterns and traits as outlined in the statements, which can result in the categorization of children to fit in the checklist. In the event that the child’s behavior does not fit a statement, the results obtained can be inaccurate. Like other child behavior assessments, the CBCL/6-18 depends on the observer’s interpretation regarding the child’s behavior, which can result in partiality, resulting in a skewed and unreliable result. According to Pandolfi et al. (2020), the CBCL/6-18 test has low specificity but good sensitivity for detecting co-occurring disorders, hence showing mixed psychometric support.
Assessment for people with neurocognitive disorders can be conducted using the Mini-Mental State Examination, 2nd edition (MMSE-2). The MMSE-2 comprises 11 questions, which are used to check for any cognitive impairments, such as problems with memory, understanding, communication, and thinking (Sousa et al., 2020). This test assesses six mental ability areas: language skills, attention or concentration, orientation to place and time, ability to comprehend and follow instructions, short-term memory, and visuospatial abilities. The MMSE-2 was authored by Mashal Folstein, Messer, Melissa, White Travis, and Susan Folstein in 2010 and was published by Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.
The MMSE-2 is considered a highly effective screening tool for separating patients with cognitive impairment from those without cognitive impairment. The test can also measure alterations in cognitive status when used regularly. However, according to Sousa et al. (2020), the MMSE-2 fails to detect early cognitive decline stages or establish the stages of one’s cognitive function. Furthermore, a high score on the test does not necessarily imply that one lacks a cognitive impairment; similarly, a low score does not imply the presence of cognitive impairment. Some cultural differences, education level, speech, language, and physical abilities are likely to affect one’s score. This means that one with an onset of dementia and who is highly educated can score highly. Since the test relies heavily on writing, reading, and verbal response, it may provide inaccurate results among patients with low literacy levels, intubated, or visual and hearing impairments (Kurlowicz & Wallace, 2019). Compared to other tests, the MMSE-2 has exceptional internal consistency, high interrater reliability, high test-retest reliability, and good concurrent validity, hence showing strong psychometric support (Baek et al., 2016).
The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is another commonly used tool to evaluate mild cognitive impairment. It is composed of 30 questions that assess various aspects of one’s executive function, visuospatial abilities, as well as memory recall. The MoCA was published by the Oxford Academy in 2016 and authored by Ziad Nasreddine. It is considered a highly sensitive screening tool for mild cognitive impairment beating the MMSE, especially in detecting earlier cognitive decline stages (Hobson, 2015). However, the MoCA is considered to take a long period of time to administer. Generally, the MoCA is considered a highly sensitive and specific tool with good construct and concurrent validities, hence attaining strong psychometric support.
Ethical Issues
Psychologists try to consider the manner in which test administration, interpretation, and results might be affected by personal diversity factors like age, race, gender, sexual orientation, acculturation, language, and gender diversity, among others, as well as the intersection of different cultural identities (American Psychological Association, 2020). Vulnerable populations such as minor children, individuals who have compromised cognitive functioning, and those who are incarcerated can pose major ethical issues in psychological assessment. According to Horin et al. (2012), there is a high likelihood of bias among individuals with disabilities when the test items tend to reflect the disability sequel more than the psychological disorders’ symptoms. Regarding test utility, most tests have failed to be normed with people with disabilities, and there are very few studies on how disability might affect the testing process. Issues of informed consent are also common, particularly among minors and those with cognitive problems (American Psychological Association, 2023).
Since time immemorial, the constructs of psychological disorders and intelligence have been theorized using the Western viewpoint, and these conceptualizations are unlikely to be easily transferred to other cultures. For instance, Horin et al. (2012) point out that in China, depression, which is a Western conceptualization, is uncommon, and hence valid diagnosis is difficult. Similarly, psychological tests have also been invented using a Western framework, and these norms with mainstream population members, hence placing particular groups at a disadvantage. Furthermore, communication between the assessee and the assessor is an important aspect of assessment. Assessors are expected to be sensitive to any variations between the dialect or language familiar to the assessee as well as the language used during the assessment. Assessors should be sensitive to the extent to which assessees have been exposed to a culture that is considered dominant and the degree to which such individuals have made a conscious decision to be assimilated (Cohen et al., 2022). The differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between cultures can also pose ethical problems for assessors.
When interpreting findings for forensic reasons, it is important to consider the context of the psychological assessment. Context provides the assessor with the right tools to interpret these findings. It will be possible for the assessor to determine how appropriate the standards and norms are in making evaluations, and this can help in more accurate and reliable results (Cohen et al., 2020).
Recommendations for Competent Assessment Practices
Bias is an inherent factor in a test, and it systematically prevents impartial and accurate measurement (Cohen et al., 2020). Using various statistical procedures can help lessen bias. Concerning validity, Kazdin and the American Psychological Association (2015) recommend using measures that have reliable and valid data pertinent to the focus of the assessment. Making use of various measures and combining them statistically can help enhance validity. Thirdly, it is also important to analyze the measures to evaluate whether measurement issues can explain findings. Assessors need to use a standard error of measurement, which can be used as an index of the amount of error or inconsistency in every individual test score. When professionals believe that test validity has been compromised, it is important to report to the relevant authorities and allow for an investigation to begin. All the necessary steps taken to administer the test should be offered to allow for proper investigation.
Conclusion
The reliability and validity of psychological tests are important. It is important to ensure that the test can result in the same score every time an individual takes it unless there are changes in the test taker. The test-retest method can help establish this. Assessors need to note that assessment techniques, standardized instruments, and data-generating procedures are designed for different groups and have specific reliability and validity to these normative groups and should, therefore, not be generalized to others unless it has been tested and proven reliable and valid in a culturally diverse sample. This will help in test inclusion and lessen bias and unfairness.
References
American Psychological Association, APA Task Force on Psychological Assessment and Evaluation Guidelines. (2020). APA Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation. Retrieved January 23, 2022 from https://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-psychological-assessment-evaluation.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2023). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Retrieved January 23, 2023 from https://www.apa.org/ethics/code
Baek, M. J., Kim, K., Park, Y. H., & Kim, S. (2016). The validity and reliability of the mini-mental state examination-2 for detecting mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease in a Korean population. PloS one, 11(9), e0163792.
Cohen, R.J., Schneider, W.J., & Tobin, R.M. (2022). Psychological Testing and Assessment: An Introduction to Tests and Measurement (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Hobson, J. (2015). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Occupational Medicine, 65(9), 764-765.
Horin, E. V., Hernandez, B., & Donoso, O. A. (2012). Behind closed doors: Assessing individuals from diverse backgrounds. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 37(2), 87-97.
Kazdin, A. E., & American Psychological Association (4th ed.). (2015). Methodological issues & strategies in clinical research. American Psychological Association.
Kurlowicz, L., & Wallace, M. (2019). The mini-mental state examination (MMSE). Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 25(5), 8-9.
Pandolfi, V., Magyar, C. I., & Dill, C. A. (2020). An initial psychometric evaluation of the CBCL 6–18 in a sample of youth with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 96-108.
Schmidt, E. M., Rothenberg, W. A., Davidson, B. C., Barnett, M., Jent, J., Cadenas, H., & Davis, E. (2021). Psychometric Properties of the Behavior Assessment System for Children Student Observation System (BASC-3 SOS) with Young Children in Special Education. Journal of Behavioral Education, 1-22.
Sousa, S., Teixeira, L., & Paúl, C. (2020). Assessment of major neurocognitive disorders in primary health care: Predictors of individual risk factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1413.
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Question
Discipline-Based Literature Review – Psychological Tests
Before beginning work on this assignment, read the following:
Behind Closed Doors: Assessing Individuals from Diverse BackgroundsDownload Behind Closed Doors: Assessing Individuals from Diverse Backgrounds
Methodological Issues in Assessment Research with Ethnic MinoritiesLinks to an external site.
Additionally, review the following from Week 1:
Section 9: Assessment on the webpage Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
APA Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and EvaluationLinks to an external site.
In addition to the resources listed above, research four peer-reviewed articles in the University of Arizona Global Campus Library published within the last 15 years, including at least one article for each of your two chosen topics from the list below.
In this assignment, you will choose two general topics of interest to you related to psychological assessment from the list below.
Assessments for adults with emotional or behavioral disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression, PTSD, personality disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, substance abuse disorders)
Assessments for children or adolescents with emotional or behavioral disorders
Assessments for children or adolescents with neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., intellectual disability, ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, learning disorders)
Assessments for gifted and talented children or adolescents
Assessments for individuals with neurocognitive disorders (e.g., due to delirium, Alzheimer’s disease, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, or other medical conditions)
Assessments for individuals with hearing or visual impairments
Assessments for individuals seeking career counseling
Assessments for presurgical evaluations
Assessments for legal cases (e.g., child custody evaluations, insanity defense, death penalty, risk assessment for parole board hearings)
Assessments for program evaluation
To complete this assignment, organize your paper in boldface using each of the headings provided below.
Introduction
Compose an introduction that describes the role of assessment in arenas you selected (e.g., diagnosis and treatment, demonstrating the effectiveness of an intervention program, legal/forensic cases). End your introduction with a clear thesis statement.
Test Comparisons
In this section,
Compare at least two psychological tests for each of the two topics chosen.
Be sure to reference your researched articles.
Differentiate tests with strong psychometric support from those with weak psychometric support for each topic you selected.
Be specific about the names of the tests, publication years, what the tests measure, and common uses of the tests. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each test.
Note: It is common for there to be a delay between the time a test publisher updates a test and the time the textbook and other authors can update their information about the new version of the test. Be sure to do online research to make sure you are discussing the most current versions of the tests you write about. If there is a newer version than the version discussed in the textbook or other readings, recommend the newest version.
Ethical Issues
In this section,
Analyze ethical challenges related to testing vulnerable populations (e.g., minor children, individuals who are charged with a crime or are incarcerated, individuals with compromised cognitive functioning).
Discuss any ethical challenges that pertain to testing individuals from diverse social and cultural backgrounds.
Discuss the importance of considering the context of psychological assessment when interpreting findings for forensic purposes or use with other vulnerable populations.
Recommendations for Competent Assessment Practices
In this section,
Recommend how to (a) minimize test bias, (b) improve the validity of assessments, and (c) develop methods to account for measurement errors in psychological testing.
Describe how professionals should report assessment findings when they suspect the validity of obtained test results is compromised.
Conclusions
Conclude by briefly discussing where additional research is needed to improve the reliability and validity of tests in the three areas you selected.
Ensure that your conclusion meets the guidelines described in the University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center’s resource Introductions & Conclusions. Links to an external site.