The Nervous System

The Nervous System

The Anatomy of Neurons

Neurons are structural and functional units of the nervous system. The neuron consists of the dendrites, axons, and cell bodies. The dendrites are branch-like structures on the neuron that receive impulses from other neuronal bodies and transmit them to the cell body. The cell body receives impulses from the dendrites. Axons are tube-like structures; they conduct electrical impulses from the cell body to the terminals. Electrical impulse conduction in the neurons occurs via an action potential (nerve impulse). A nerve impulse is generated when chemneurons’ neurons change the neuron’s membrane potential. This impulse is transmitted along the neuronal membrane via the axons to the axon terminals, where it is transferred to another neuronal cell vial, the synaptic cleft.

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The Major Components of the Subcortical Structures

The subcortical structures are responsible for complex functionalities such as cognition and social functions. These structures include the amygdala, putamen, thalamus, hippocampus, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, and the pituitary gland.

The Components That Play a Role in Learning, Memory, and Addiction

The hippocampus’s structural structure plays a role in cognition and long-term memory. The thalamus is responsible for creating and storing new memories. The limbic subcortical structures play a role in addiction (Koshiyama et al., 2018). The reward circuit, which is composed of the mesolimbic cortical structures beginning in the ventral tegmental areas and extending to the nucleus accumbens, is responsible for human addictions.

Neurons Produced in the Nigrostriatal Region Responsible for Motor Control

Dopamine and acetylcholine are the two significant neurons produced in the nigrostriatal region and are responsible for coordinating movement. Dopamine produced by substantia nigra pars compacta increases movement via interactions with the dopamine 1 receptors in the direct pathway and inhibits dopamine 2 receptors in the indirect path (Sonne et al., 2022). Acetylcholine, on the other hand, is released from the cholinergic interneurons and inhibits movement by interacting with and exciting cholinergic receptors in the indirect pathway and inhibiting cholinergic receptors in the direct path.

Glia Cells in the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Neuroglial cells include the astrocytes, Schwann cells, and microglia. The primary functions of the neuroglial cells are to provide structural support and protection of the neurons, clear debris, maintain homeostasis, and form myelin. The Schwann cells are responsible for myelin formation in the peripheral nervous system, while the oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath on the axons in the CNS. The astrocytes are responsible for maintaining neuronal homeostasis for neuronal conduction (Guy-Evans, 2022)—the microglial cells clear debris from the neuronal environment.

The Synaptic Cleft

The synaptic cleft is the gap between two neurons at a nerve synapse. The synaptic cleft allows for neurotransmission between an axonal terminal and the dendrites of the second neuron. Impulses at the synaptic cleft move from the axonal terminals of the first neuronal body through the synaptic cleft to postsynaptic receptors in the dendrites component of the second neuronal body.

The Concept of Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity is the structural and functional changes that occur in the central nervous system in response to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli. Physical injuries such as traumatic brain injury and cerebrovascular accidents are some of the stimuli that elicit a response. The consequential reorganization of the brain structures and their neuronal connections are the highlights of neuroplasticity. Functional and structural changes that highlight neuroplasticity may either be beneficial or harmful. Healthy changes result in the restoration of neuronal functionalities, while unfavorable changes result in pathologic consequences. Neutral changes cause no change in the brain’sbrain’sonalities (Sonne et al., 2022). Neuroplasticity can either be by neuronal regeneration as seen in neurogenesis or functional reorganization.

References

Guy-Evans, O. (2022). Glial Cells Types and Functions – Simply Psychology. Simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 27 August 2022, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/glial-cells.html.

Koshiyama, D., Fukunaga, M., Okada, N., Yamashita, F., Yamamori, H., & Yasuda, Y. et al. (2018). Role of subcortical structures on cognitive and social function in schizophrenia. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18950-2

Puderbaugh, M., & Emmady, P. (2022). Neuroplasticity. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 27 August 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557811/.

Sonne, J., Reddy, V., & Beato, M. (2022). Neuroanatomy, Substantia Nigra. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 27 August 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536995/.

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In 4 or 5 sentences, describe the anatomy of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. Include each part of the neuron and a general overview of electrical impulse conduction, the pathway it travels, and the net result at the termination of the impulse. Be specific and provide examples.

The Nervous System

Answer the following (listing is acceptable for these questions):
What are the major components that make up the subcortical structures?
Which component plays a role in learning, memory, and addiction?
What are the two critical neurotransmitters located in the nigra striatal region of the brain that play a significant role in motor control?
In 3 or 4 sentences, explain how glial cells function in the central nervous system. Be specific and provide examples.
The synapse is an area between two neurons that allows for chemical communication. In 3 or 4 sentences, explain what part of the neurons are communicating with each other and in which direction this communication occurs. Be specific.
In 3–5 sentences, explain the concept of “neuroplasticity.” Be specific and provide examples.