Hepatitis B Infection
Hepatitis B is considered one of the most dangerous viral infections affecting major body organs, in this case, the liver. The infection is caused by a certain virus called the Hepatitis B Virus (HBV). Approximately 200 million people globally are currently infected with this viral infection, while at least six hundred thousand people die due to this infection every year. The essay is meant to educate on etiology, complications, epidemiology, health determinants, and the role of public health nurses in HBV (Seto et al., 2018). Hepatitis B infection is a common everyday infection, understated but responsible for the deaths of thousands of people globally. Hire our assignment writing services in case your assignment is devastating you.
HBV infection is considered parenteral; that is, its mode of transmission is via body fluids such as blood, saliva, or vaginal fluids. It can be transmitted through the following ways: coitus, vertical transmission from mother to child during birth, and accidental or incidental needles. There are two forms of infection: acute and chronic hepatitis B infection. The acute form usually lasts below a period of six months but clears on its own when the body’s immune system kicks in and clears the infection. However, the acute form can persist and lead to chronic disease. Chronic disease is differentiated from acute HBV because it lasts for at least six months or more. The condition persists in this case because the body’s immune system cannot clear the infection (Seto et al., 2018).
The common symptoms associated with HBV vary depending on whether the infection is acute or chronic, mild or severe, with the incubation period for the condition being between three to four months. However, there have been reports of patients experiencing symptoms as early as three weeks. There is usually coinfection with the hepatitis C virus and or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in such cases. On the other hand, there have been cases where patients are infected but are asymptomatic, who in most cases are usually children. The symptoms include jaundice, abdominal pains, joint pains, fever, nausea, fatigue, vomiting, darkening of urine, and loss of appetite (Fanning et al., 2019).
Hepatitis B infection has both preventative and treatment measures. In terms of prevention, the main mechanism is through hepatitis B vaccination. The vaccine is given as three shots at least one month apart for over six months. This vaccine is currently assigned to the following groups of people: new-borns under their immunization schedule or those not vaccinated at birth, health workers, intravenous drug users, anyone with end-stage kidney and liver diseases, or anyone traveling in an area endemic for hepatitis B infection (Fanning et al., 2019). The treatment options include antiviral drugs, which have so far not been found to guarantee 100% clearance but are effective. These drugs include entecavir, tenofovir, lamivudine, adefovir and telbivudine. Lastly, there are interferons such as interferon alfa 2b treatment option and a liver transplant treatment option for chronic hepatitis.
There are several complications associated with hepatitis B infection, including liver cirrhosis, liver cancer, liver failure, kidney disease, and blood vessel inflammation. Out of a hundred individuals infected with HBV, at least 20 cases translate into chronic HBV infection, leading to liver scarring and fibrosis, also called liver cirrhosis. This complication impairs the liver’s ability to regenerate, hence impairing its overall function. Out of this group, at least 5 % progress to contract hepatocellular carcinoma, also known as liver cancer. Thus, HBV increases the risk of getting hepatocellular carcinoma. The hepatitis B virus is currently responsible for 45% of all liver cancer cases (Schillie et al., 2018). Due to its effect on the liver, the kidney decompensates, leading to kidney damage. Also, other complications include coinfection with hepatitis C virus, hepatitis D virus, HIV, coagulopathy, cerebral edema, and encephalopathy.
Several studies have conclusively appreciated that HBV risk factors and infection outcomes are affected by several determinants of health. These determinants are grouped into five groups, namely, policy-making, social factors, individual behaviors, health services, and genetics/biology (Schillie et al., 2018). These determinants can be summed up into the following actionable factors. The first and major factor for contracting HBV and contributing to poor health outcomes is knowledge and or awareness level. This is because HBV patients fail to see the importance of seeking treatment in terms of screening, prevention, and or treatment.
Another factor is the clinicians’ knowledge level. Most doctors will not advise patients to come for routine screening or emphasize how important seeking medical intervention is for this infection. Additionally, policymakers have not allocated enough financial and education needs to create awareness, employ enough specialists, and stock enough medications for this sort of infection compared with diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, even though they are all equally fatal (Razavi-Shearer et al., 2018). Low community outreach and training have also been a major factor in creating awareness to help fight HBV. Day-to-day behaviors of different individuals, such as having unprotected sex, multiple sex partners, and intravenous drug use, especially among drug abusers and home deliveries, have greatly increased the risk of spreading HBV among the population. Lastly, very few health centers offer specialist services to screen and treat this infection, making access to health services an issue in the fight against HBV.
HBV has a very broad geographical epidemiology, and the likelihood of progressing to chronic infection is greatly dependent on population, age, and transmission mode. Currently, at least 250 million to 400 million are being estimated to have contracted this infection. On average, at least five hundred thousand people die every year due to the disease (Razavi-Shearer et al., 2018). The most common cause of death is hepatocellular carcinoma, a major complication of HBV, followed by liver cirrhosis. A current study by the World Hepatitis Alliance ranked HBV as the seventh most common cause of death in general among people (“Viral hepatitis is now the seventh most important cause of death worldwide | World Hepatitis Alliance,” 2016).
The hepatitis B virus is generally found in human beings as the primary host, though it can be found in other mammals too. The mode of transmission is via body fluids that occur through sexual intercourse, vertical transmission from mother to child during birth, and accidental or incidental needles. Risk factors related to the message of the disease include sharing space with an infected person, healthcare workers handling patients and body fluids of patients already infected with HBV, IV drug users, traveling to areas endemic for the disease, and or having multiple sex partners (Kim & Kim, 2018). The major environmental factors related to HBV include the consumption of alcohol and aflatoxins, which have been shown to be very critical in the transmission of HBV.
Based on the modes of transmission of HBV, public health nurses are among the most critical people in screening, preventing, and treating the infection. The role of public health nurses is to provide information to the general population about the disease in question, how to seek treatment, and to teach preventative measures (Kim & Kim, 2018). In the case of HBV, a public health nurse is critical in bridging the gap currently existing between the knowledge and awareness level of people to the infection. This will be very important in ensuring that the general population appreciates the severity of the disease and seeks treatment. The other role public health nurses engage in is prevention education, and in this case, they will be involved in educating the general population on how to avoid contracting HBV. This includes engaging in protected sex, delivering in a hospital setting, and having one sexual partner (Terrault et al., 2016).
In summary, HBV is a serious infection that majorly targets the liver. The hepatitis B virus causes it, and its modes of transmission include sexual intercourse, vertical information from mother to child, having multiple sexual partners, and men having sex with men. Currently, at least 250 million to 400 million are being estimated to have contracted this infection. On average, at least five hundred thousand people die every year due to HBV complications. The treatment options include antiviral drugs, though these drugs don’t guarantee a 100% clearance rate. Public health nurses are among the most critical people in the screening, prevention, and treatment of the infection.
References
Fanning, G. C., Zoulim, F., Hou, J., & Bertoletti, A. (2019). Therapeutic strategies for hepatitis B virus infection: towards a cure. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2019 18:11, 18(11), 827–844. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41573-019-0037-0
Kim, B. H., & Kim, W. R. (2018). Epidemiology of Hepatitis B Virus Infection in the United States. Clinical Liver Disease, 12(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/CLD.732
Razavi-Shearer, D., Gamkrelidze, I., Nguyen, M. H., Chen, D. S., Van Damme, P., Abbas, Z., Abdulla, M., Abou Rached, A., Adda, D., Aho, I., Akarca, U., Al Ali, F. H., Lawati, F. A. L., Naamani, K. A. L., Alashgar, H. I., Alavian, S. M., Alawadhi, S., Albillos, A., Al-Busafi, S. A., … Razavi, H. (2018). The global prevalence, treatment, and prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in 2016: a modeling study. The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 3(6), 383–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(18)30056-6
Schillie, S., Vellozzi, C., Reingold, A., Harris, A., Haber, P., Ward, J. W., & Nelson, N. P. (2018). Prevention of Hepatitis B Virus Infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on ImmunizationPractices. MMWR Recommendations and Reports, 67(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.15585/MMWR.RR6701A1
Seto, W. K., Lo, Y. R., Pawlotsky, J. M., & Yuen, M. F. (2018). Chronic hepatitis B virus infection. The Lancet, 392(10161), 2313–2324. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31865-8
Terrault, N. A., Bzowej, N. H., Chang, K. M., Hwang, J. P., Jonas, M. M., & Murad, M. H. (2016). AASLD guidelines for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology, 63(1), 261–283. https://doi.org/10.1002/HEP.28156/EPDF
Viral hepatitis is now the seventh most important cause of death worldwide | World Hepatitis Alliance. (2016). Retrieved 30 August 2021, from https://www.worldhepatitisalliance.org/latest-news/infohep/3070092/viral-hepatitis-now-seventh-most-important-cause-death-worldwide
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Question 
Write a scholarly paper in which you apply the concepts of epidemiology and nursing research to an infectious disease. Choose one communicable disease.
Hepatitis B Infection
Epidemiology Paper Requirements
Include the following in your assignment:
A thorough description of the disease, including causes, mode of transmission, symptoms, treatment, and complications. Discuss the demographic most affected, prevalence, morbidity, and mortality.
What are the determinants of health affecting this disease? https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/foundation-health-measures/Determinants-of-Health.
Identify the epidemiologic triad, including host, agent, and environmental factors as related to this disease.
Discuss the role of the public health nurse in relation to this disease. How is the public health nurse involved in finding, reporting, collecting, and analyzing data and follow-up?