American Indian Religious Freedom – A History of Violence and Resistance
Religion and Colonial Violence
During the early 19th century, the United States federal government sought to expand its territory into the Indian American territory. However, the Indian Americans defended their land vehemently and organized and implemented violent retaliation against their oppressors. The federal government attempted to appease the Indian Americans by creating treaties with native Americans, such as setting up a 60 million acre reservation land. However, the federal government violated this treaty because of their thirst for natural resources and by the mid-19th century, the overall reservation land for Indians had been reduced to 12.1 million acres. Further, the federal government began coercing Indian Americans to grow crops, keep livestock, dress like Westerners, abandon their hunting profession, and rely on food rations. Additionally, the government compelled Native Americans to abandon their religions and practice Christianity, yet the former was a source of identity for the Indian Americans.
In the late 19th century, the Native Americans developed the Ghost Dance religion in retaliation to the oppressions advanced by Whites, such as the forceful abandonment of their gods and religion. The religion was birthed in Nevada in Northern Paiute by Wovoka, a prophet who declared he had been contacted by the ancestors and asked to preach a religion of peace to conquer the White settlers. According to Wovoka, the Indian American ancestors said they would resurrect; Whites would be buried 30 feet under, and Native Americans would receive their land back if they remained peaceful, a key mandate of the Ghost Dance religion. The religion spread quickly amongst Indian Americans and was viewed as a source of salvation from the United States federal government and its oppressive actions (Smith 194). However, some United States public officials began viewing the Ghost Dance as a revolt against the federal government, inciting rebellion amongst Native Americans. In 1890, the United States Army was deployed to eliminate rebellious Native Americans at Wounded Knee, and the episode resulted in the deaths of up to 300 Lakota tribesmen. Therefore, the Ghost Dance, meant to inspire salvation in Indian Americans, was the primary cause of the massacre at Wounded Knee.
Religion and State Violence
In 1860, the federal government decided to intensify its assimilation efforts of Native Americans into Western culture. As such, Indian American children were required to attend off-reservation boarding schools where they learned the western lifestyle. Part of the lessons taught at the boarding schools was Christianity, which emphasized observation of the Beatitudes, Ten Commandments, and Psalms (“Native American History and Culture: Boarding Schools – American Indian Relief Council is Now Northern Plains Reservation Aid.”). Additionally, the Indian American children were taught that it was wrong for male and female students to intermingle, and a sense of sin and guilt was enforced using a Christian approach. The Christian teachings severely violated Indian American teachings, which promoted communal living and obedience to the gods and ancestors. Therefore, boarding schools undermined the Indian American religion significantly, as explained.
Religion and Native American Reactions
The Ghost Dance advanced within the Indian American reservation lands significantly after its introduction. Intended to prompt feelings of hope and salvation in Native Americans who had been oppressed severely by the United States federal government, the Ghost Dance spread quickly and secretly. Indian American tribes, such as the Lakota, later modified their religion to include the addressing of violence they regularly experienced under the White man (Smith 31). Members of the Ghost Dance religion began wearing white shirts as they performed the Ghost Dance, believing the shirts would protect them from exploitation by White settlers (Wyotexas Ron reel). Therefore, the Native Americans sought to preserve their culture and religious freedom by practicing the Ghost Dance religion and spreading it amongst other Native Americans during the 19th century, as explained.
Works Cited
“Native American History and Culture: Boarding Schools – American Indian Relief Council is Now Northern Plains Reservation Aid.” Helping Native American People Improve the Quality of Life – Partnership With Native Americans, www.nativepartnership.org/site/PageServer?pagename=airc_hist_boardingschools.
Smith, Huston. A Seat at the Table: Huston Smith In Conversation with Native Americans on Religious Freedom. U of California P, 2007.
Wyotexas ron reel. “Kiowa Ghost Dance- Forbidden Dance/Gourd Dance- Red Wolf Songs.” YouTube, 10 Sept. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=IBP5waC4b7k. Accessed 23 July 2021.
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Question 
A History of Violence and Resistance
In this module, we learned about the strong relationship between religion and identity and how this relationship shapes our collective narratives and notions of the human problem, salvation, and the problem of evil.
Based on the readings and videos, analyze why religious freedom is important and what role of religion in the loss and regaining of identity:
On Religion and Colonial Violence: What are some key aspects of the Native American view of “salvation” (or the end goal of life) present in the narrative of the Ghost Dance, and how is this connected to the massacre at Wounded Knee?
On Religion and State violence: How did boarding schools for Native American children undermine religious freedom?
On Religion and Native American Reactions: Provide an example of how Native Americans have advanced in their struggle for religious freedom to safeguard their culture and identities. Consider one of the following examples:
AIRFA and NAGPRA laws
The use of myth and ritual to reclaim the events at Wounded Knee
The secret continuation of the Ghost Dance
Consider:
Keep in mind that, unlike Christian European settlers, Native Americans did not see salvation or punishment outside of this world or nature, nor did they identify “sin” as the root of the human problem. Loss of land and creation of reservations
Broken treaties and violence at Wounded Knee
Indian American Boarding schools and loss of family ties and culture